Table 2.
Brief summary for biomaterials used in edible packaging.
| Biomaterial | Source/Derivative | Properties | Applications | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flour of grains and legumes | Corn starch, chickpeas, lentils, etc. | High content of starch and protein results in good film-forming properties. | Used as an edible film for wrapping foods. | [13] |
| Fruit and vegetable residues | Peel, pomace, seed fraction, etc. | Films are malleable, water soluble, improved mechanical and barrier properties, enhanced mechanical resistance. | Can be used as edible films and coatings for perishable food items. | [13] |
| Plant gums | Gum arabic, gum karaya, gum ghatti, mesquite, etc. | Potential material for edible film formation, exhibits good physical, chemical, biological properties. | Edible films and coatings on fruits such as strawberries, tomatoes, and pecan nuts. | [13] |
| Pectin | Cell wall of plants | Acts as a natural plasticizer, good mechanical properties, poor barrier properties. | Edible coating for fruits, vegetables, cheese, and meat products. | [24] |
| Starch | Corn, potato, wheat, rice, etc. | Tasteless, clear, O2 and CO2 barrier, not soluble in water, poor mechanical properties. | Wrapper and coatings after some modifications. | [174] |
| Cellulose | Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), cellulose acetate (CA), methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl, hydroxyethyl cellulose, cellophane, etc. | Not moisture resistant, good mechanical properties. | Used for packaging of meat products, confectionary, and cheese. | [77] |
| Protein | Wheat gluten and corn zein, soy protein | Water solubility, opacity, and mechanical and barrier properties, Not soluble in water, but absorb water when they are submerged. |
Can be used after modifications, used in glues, dyes, and paper coatings. | [24,76] |
| Marine algae | Alginate, agar, carrageenan | Natural binder in coating. Poor water resistance, good barrier for oxygen, lipid, and oxidation of fat. |
Edible coatings for fruits, vegetables, cheese, and meat products. | [77] |
| Chitosan | Exoskeleton of crustaceans, fungal cell walls, and other animal sources | Good mechanical properties, good barriers for oxygen transition, antimicrobial properties. | Used in fruit coatings, cellophane packaging. | [77] |
| Collagen and gelatin | Hair, skin, nails, bones, and ligaments of beef or fish | Translucent films, permeable to moisture. | Used in the coating of sausage and other meat products. | [29] |
| Pullulan | Microbiological source | Thermal and oil resistance, low gas barrier. | Used for food coatings. | [175] |
| Xanthan | Microbiological source | Excellent solubility, good rheological properties and stability. | Used in coatings for fruits such as strawberries, garden berries, and grapes. | [176] |
| Gellan | Microbiological source | Exhibits good gelling, colloidal, and antimicrobial properties, exhibits good water solubility. | Used in edible films and coatings for fruits and vegetables. | [176] |
| Milk proteins | Caseinate and whey protein | Casein-based films are opaque and water insoluble, but they absorb water, and have good mechanical properties; expensive. | Can be used to coat highly perishable foods such as meat products. | [177,178,179,180] |
| Lipid | Acetoglycerides, beeswax, surfactants, triglycerides, fatty acids | Weak mechanical properties, good barrier against moisture migration. | Edible coatings for fruit and meat products. | [77,181,182] |
| Natural bioactive material | Fruit waste, agricultural waste (antioxidant and antimicrobial compound) | Exhibits excellent antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. | Can be used as an active agent in edible films such as agar-based films. | [29] |