Table 1.
Characteristics of the included studies.
| Study | Participants n (% Males), Mean Age (Age Range) |
Experiment Group Intervention | Duration and Intensity of Intervention | Comparison Condition |
Duration | Intervention Providers | Setting |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aldred et al. (2004) [27] | n = 28 (89.29%, males); mean age: 49.5 (24–71) | Social Communication Intervention | 6 months with monthly sessions followed by another 6 months of 2-monthly consolidation sessions plus 30 min daily parent–child interaction | TAU | 12 months | Professionals and parents | Individual |
| Brian et al. (2017) [28] | n = 62 (75.8%, males); mean age: 25.26 (16–30) | Social ABCs | 12 weeks of 1.5 h home visits with tapering intensity (week 1: 3 visits; week 2: 2 visits; weeks 3–8: 1 visit/week; weeks 10 and 12: 1 “booster” visit/week; weeks 9 and 11: check-in phone call) |
TAU: 3 months: up to 1 h/week of “other” direct therapy | 3 months | Parents | Individual |
| Carter et al. (2011) [29] | n = 62 (82.26% males); mean age: 20.25 (15–25) | Hanen’s More Than Words (HMTW) | 8 group parent sessions of 2.5 h and three in-home individualized parent–child sessions of 1 h | No treatment | 3.5 months | Parents | Individual and group |
| Dawson et al. (2010) [30] | n = 48 (77.1% males); mean age: 23.5 (18–30) | The Early Start Denver Model (ESDM) | 15.2 h therapist-delivered and 16.3 h/week parent-delivered therapy, 5 days/week | TAU: 9.1 h of individual therapy and an average of 9.3 h/week of group interventions for 2 years | 2 years | Parents | Individual |
| Divan et al. (2019) [31] | n = 40 (87.5% males); mean age: 64 (27–105) | Parent mediated intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder Plus (PASS Plus) | 12 fortnightly home-based session between the parent and the lay health worker after a 10 min period of play between the parent and the child |
TAU | 6 months | Parents | Individual |
| Drew et al. (2002) [32] | n = 24 (79.17% males); mean age: 22.5 (-) | Parent training intervention with a focus on the development of joint attention skills and joint action routines | 3 h parent sessions every 6 weeks | TAU: 3 months: 32.9 h/week | 12 months | Parents | Individual |
| Estes et al. (2015), follow-up of Dawson et al. (2010) [33] | n = 39 (77% males); mean age: 2.9 | The Early Start Denver Model (ESDM) | 15.2 h therapist-delivered and 16.3 h/week parent-delivered therapy, 5 days/week | TAU: 9.1 h of individual therapy and an average of 9.3 h/week of group interventions for 2 years | 2 years | Parents | Individual |
| Gengoux et al. (2019) [34] | n = 43 (88.4% males); mean age: 48.4 (24–60) | PRT-P | Weeks 1 to 12: weekly 60 min parent training sessions and 10 h per week of clinician delivered in-home treatment for children. Weeks 12 to 24: monthly 60 min parent training sessions and 5 h per week of in-home treatment for children | Waitlist and stable community treatments | 24 weeks | Professionals and parents | Individual |
| Green et al. (2010) [35] | n = 152 (90.79% males); mean age: 45 (24–60) | Parent-mediated communication-focused treatment in children with autism (PACT) |
2 h clinic sessions every 2 weeks for 6 months followed by monthly booster sessions for 6 months, plus 30 min of daily home practice | TAU | 13 months | Parents |
Individual |
| Green et al. (2022) [36] | n = 248 (79.4% males); mean age: 63 (24–132) | Paediatric Autism Communication Therapy-Generalised (PACT-G) | 12 intervention sessions over 6 months at home plus 12 sessions over 6 months, again with 50% remote delivery | TAU | 6 months | Professionals and parents | Individual |
| Hampton et al. (2020) [37] | n = 73 (79% males); mean age: 43 (36–60) | Caregiver training, Discrete Trial Teaching, and JASP + EMT + SGD | 36 sessions in the clinic and at home, 45–60 min per session | TAU | 4 months | Professionals and parents | Individual |
| Hardan et al. (2015) [38] | n = 47 (75% males); mean age: 49.2 (24–84) | Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) | 1 session of 90 min/week | Psychoeducation: 12 weeks: 1 session of 60 min/week | 12 weeks | Parents | Individual |
| Kaale et al. (2014) [39] | n = 61 (78.7% males); mean age: 48.8 (24–60) | Social communication treatment | 2 daily 20 min sessions, including 5 min of table-top training and 15 min of floor play | TAU | 8 weeks | Teachers | Group |
| Kasari et al. (2015) [40] | n = 86 (81.4% males); mean age: 31.5 | Joint Attention, Symbolic Play, Engagement and Regulation (JASPER) | 2 sessions of 30 min per week | Psychoeducation: 1 h per week | 10 weeks | Professionals and parents | Individual |
| Landa et al. (2011) [41] | n = 48 (88.3% males); mean age: 28.7 (21–33) | Interpersonal Synchrony | 10 h per week in classroom, student-to-teacher ratio, schedule, home-based parent training (1.5 h per month), parent education (38 h), plus supplementary curriculum targeting socially engaged imitation, joint attention, and affect sharing | Non-Interpersonal Synchrony: 10 h per week in classroom, student-to-teacher ratio, schedule, home-based parent training (1.5 h per month), parent education (38 h) | 6 months | Teachers, Parents | Group, Individual |
| Oosterling et al. (2010) [42] | n = 65 (77.61% males); mean age: 34.32 (<12–42) | Joint attention and language skills stimulation | 2 h sessions with parents, 3 h home visits every 6 weeks during the first year. In the second year, 3-month intervals between home visits | TAU | 2 years | Parents | Individual |
| Parsons et al. (2019) [43] | n = 59 (81.4% males); mean age: 62.6 (24–72) | TOBY app targeting visual motor, imitation, language and social parameters | At least 20 min on the TOBY app daily for 3 months using an iPad | TAU | 3 months | - | Individual |
| Rahman et al. (2016) [44] | n = 65 (81.5% males); mean age: 64.5 24–108) | PASS (plus TAU) | 1 h sessions every 2 weeks for 6 months | TAU | 6 months | Professionals and parents | Individual |
| Reitzel et al. (2013) [45] | n = 11 (-); mean age: 58.5 (38–82) | Functional Behaviour Skills Training program (FBST) | 30 min parents-only training sessions, a simultaneous children’s activity session, and a 90 min combined children’s and parents’ training session | TAU | 4 months | Professionals and parents | Individual |
| Rickards et al. (2007) [46] | n = 59 (79.7% males); mean age: 43.87 (36–60) | Home-based Program (in addition to a center-based program) |
1 and 1½ h during school terms over a 12-month period plus 5 h spread over two weekly sessions during school terms | Center-based program: 5 h spread over two sessions weekly during school terms | 12 months | Professionals | Individual |
| Roberts et al. (2011) [47] | n = 56 (90.5% males); mean age: 42.6 (26.3–60.3) | Building Blocks home-based | Visit for 2 h once a fortnight over a 40-week period (20 sessions maximum) | Waitlist | 1 year | Parents | Individual |
| Rogers et al. (2012) [48] | n = 98 (77.55% males); mean age: 20.98 (12–24) | Brief Early Start Denver Model (P-ESDM) Parent-based Intervention | 1 session of 1 h/week | TAU | 12 weeks | Parents | Individual |
| Rogers et al. (2019) [49] | n = 118 (78% males); mean age: 21.02 (14–24) | Early Start Denver Model (ESDM) | 3 months of weekly parent coaching followed by 24 months of 15 h per week (on average) 1:1 treatment weekly on average in homes or daycare settings from supervised therapy assistants while parents received 4 h of coaching monthly from a certified ESDM therapist | TAU | 27 months | Professionals and parents | Individual |
| Scahill et al. (2016) [50] | n = 180 (87.7% males); mean age: 4.75 (36–83) | Parent training (PT) | Eleven 60-to-90-minute core sessions, up to 2 optional sessions, and a home visit over 16 weeks, as well as a home visit and 2 telephone booster sessions between weeks 16 and 24 | Structured parent education program (PEP): twelve 60-to-90-minute individually administered sessions and 1 home visit over 24 weeks | 24 weeks | Parents | Individual |
| Schertz et al. (2013) [51] | n = 23 (-); mean age: 26.11 (<30) | Joint Attention Mediated Learning (JAML) | 15 home visits included 10 min parent–child interaction plus 30 min daily parent–child interaction | TAU | 7 months | Parents | Individual |
| Siller et al. (2013) [52] | n = 70 (91% males); mean age: 57.1 (32–82) | Focused Playtime Intervention (FPI) | 1 session per week for 12 weeks, 90 min per session | PAC | 12 weeks | Parents | Individual |
| Solomon et al. (2014) [53] | n = 128 (78.91% males); mean age: 50.19 (32–71) | PLAY Project Home Consultation program (PLAY) | 3 h home visits/month | TAU: 2 h/week | 1 year | Parents | Individual |
| Strain and Bovey (2011) [54] | n = 294; mean age: 50.33 | LEAP intervention (Learning Experiences and Alternative Program for Preschoolers and Their Parents) | 2.75–3 h per day, 5 days per week | Intervention manuals and related written materials to preschool staff: 2.75–3 h per day, 5 days per week | 2 years | Professionals and parents | Group |
| Tonge et al. (2014) [55] | n = 70 (82.86% males); mean age: 46.56 (23–70) | Education and behavior management skills for Pre-schoolers with Autism (PEBM) | Ten 90-minute small group (4–5 families) sessions alternated with ten 60-minute individual family sessions over a 20-week period. | TAU | 20 weeks | Parents | Individual and group |
| Turner-Brown et al. (2019) [56] | n = 49 (85.7% males); mean age: 29.6 (17–35) | Family Implemented TEACCH for Toddlers (FITT) | Twenty 90-minute in-home sessions where the FITT coach works directly with the family and toddler and 4 parent group sessions. | TAU | 6 months | Parents and professionals | Individual and group |
| Valeri et al. (2020) [57] | n = 34 (79% males); mean age: 48.3 (24–132) | Cooperative parent-mediated therapy (CPMT) plus low-intensity psychosocial intervention (LPI) | 15 sessions of 60 min. 12 core sessions, 1 per week, were delivered in the first 3 months, followed by 3 monthly booster sessions plus 4 h LIP per week | Low-intensity psychosocial intervention (LPI) | 6 months | Parents and professionals | Individual |
| Vernon et al. (2019) [58] | n = 23 (87% males); mean age: 35.13 (18–56) | Pivotal Response Intervention for Social Motivation (PRISM) |
10 h a week of intervention: 8 h of one-on-one clinician-implemented treatment and 2 h of parent education in the intervention strategies with the child present | TAU | 6 months | Parents and professionals | Individual |
| Welterlin et al. (2012) [59] | n = 20 (90% males); mean age: 30.5 (24–39) | Home TEACCHing Program for Toddlers with Autism | 1.5 h per week for 12 sessions plus 30 min of parents’ psychoeducation | Waitlist | 12 weeks | Parents | Individual |