Table 1.

Different strategies to treat Pseudomonas aeruginosa infectious biofilms.

Strategy	Mechanism	Molecules associated	Reference
Antibiotics	Antibiotics are used in combination with antibiotics or other substances to destroy biofilms and prevent the development of antibiotic resistance	Gentamicin/ciprofloxacin, tobramycin/clarithromycin, linolenic acid-tobramycin, gentamicin-EDTA, glutamine-ampicillin	Chauhan et al., 2012; Chanda et al., 2017; Ghorbani et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2021
AMPsa	Interact and penetrate with the bacterial cell membrane to cause the death of the bacteria	LL-37, P5, cationic peptide 1,037, MC1, WLBU2	Overhage et al., 2008; de la Fuente-Nunez et al., 2012; Lin et al., 2018b Martinez et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2019
QSIsb	Inhibit the QS system and interfere with signaling molecules and receptor proteins	Zingerone, trans-cinnamaldehyde and salicylic acid, chloroacetamide and maleimide analogs, halogenated furanone derivatives, M64, QSI4	Kumar et al., 2015; Ahmed et al., 2019; O'Brien et al., 2015; Maura and Rahme, 2017; Chang et al., 2019; Schutz et al., 2021
Enzymes or polysaccharides	Target extracellular polymeric substances (such as exopolysaccharides, matrix proteins, and eDNA) to disrupt biofilms	DNase I, glycoside hydrolases PelA and PslG, alginate lyase AlyP1400, A101, EPS273	Jiang et al., 2011; Hymes et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2018; Daboor et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2021
Ga3+	Acts as a “Trojan horse” to disrupt bacterial Fe metabolism and inhibit P. aeruginosa growth	Desferrioxamine-gallium, Ga-Cit, Ga (NO3)3	Banin et al., 2008; Rzhepishevska et al., 2011; Kang et al., 2021
NO	Creates nitrosative stress or oxidative stress in the biofilm and aids in biofilm dispersal	NO-sensing proteins	Hossain and Boon, 2017
Bacteriophages	Encode enzymes to destroy the extracellular matrix	IME180, quorum quenching lactamase	Pei and Lamas-Samanamud, 2014; Mi et al., 2019
aPDTc	PS binds to the biofilm matrix and generates ROS under light, initiating multi-target damage	Tetra-Py+-Me, MB + GN, ICG-APTMS@SPION/laser	Beirao et al., 2014; Bilici et al., 2020; Perez-Laguna et al., 2020

^aAntimicrobial peptides.

^bQuorum-sensing inhibitors.

^cAntimicrobial photodynamic therapy.