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. 2022 Sep 1;14(17):3613. doi: 10.3390/nu14173613

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Schematic Diagram of the metabolic pathways of key energy sources in the human body. NAD: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; FADH: reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide; NADH: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) + hydrogen (H); PDH: pyruvate dehydrogenase; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; CPT: carnitine palmitoyl transferase; ß HOB: beta hydroxybutyrate; BDH: D-3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; SCOT: succinyl-CoA acetoacetate transferase; AcAc: acetoacetate; CoA: coenzyme A; CoA-SH: coenzyme A with sulfhydryl functional group; CO2: carbon dioxide; H2O: water; ADP: adenosine diphosphate; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; Pi: phosphorylated forms of phosphatidylinositol; NH3: ammonia; NH4: ammonium; H+: hydrogen ion; HMG-CoA: ß-hydroxy-ß-methylglutaryl-CoA; MCT: monocarboxylate transporters; GLUT: glucose transporter; AAT: amino acid transporter; ALT: alanine amino transferase; PC: pyruvate carboxylase; MPC: mitochondrial pyruvate carrier.