Table 1.
Antiviral activities of honey and its components.
| Honey or Its Compounds | Organism | Tested Model | Outcome of the Study | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Honey extract (Camelyn) | SARS-CoV-2 | In vitro (plaque reduction assay) baby hamster kidney cell line 21 (BHK-21), bone marrow-derived hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), and splenic cells | Showed an inhibitory effect with an EC50 value from 85.7 μg/mL to 192.4 μg/mL. | [49] |
| Honey | Rubella virus | In vitro African green monkey kidney cells | Inhibited the virus at all concentrations (1:1 to 1:1000 dilutions). | [50] |
| Honey | HSV-1 | In vitro (plaque assay technique) Vero cells | Showed the highest inhibitory effect at 500 μg/mL and reduced viral load from 70795 to 43.3. | [51] |
| Methylglyoxal (Component of manuka honey) |
Influenza B virus | In vitro Madin-Darby canine kidney cells |
Inhibited influenza B virus replication, with 50% inhibitory concentrations ranging from 23–140 μM. | [52] |
| Kanuka honey | Herpes simplex labialis | Human model: 952 adults participated to compare the effect of Kanuka honey to 5% aciclovir cream | There was no difference in effectiveness compared with 5% acyclovir. | [53] |
| Honey | Common cold | Human model (cohort study): 122 students participated | Especially after six weeks of honey application, common cold frequency was lower than in the control group. | [54] |
| Tualang honey | HIV | Human model: 95 asymptomatic HIV-positive subjects participated | Ameliorated CD4 count, viral load, and quality of life. | [55] |
| Iranian honeys (8 monofloral honey types obtained from Petro selinum sativum, Nigella sativa, Citrus sinensis, Zataria multiflora, Citrus aurantium, Zizyphus mauritiana, Astragalus gummifer, and Chamaemelum nobile flowers) | HIV-1 | In vitro peripheral blood mononuclear cells | Showed potent anti-HIV-1 activity in 6 of 8 monofloral honeys with EC50 values ranging from 5 to 105 µg/mL. | [56] |
| Honey | HSV-1 | In vitro Vero cells | Showed complete inhibitory effect at 5% and higher concentrations. | [57] |
| Honey (garlic and ginger decoction) | Influenza virus | In vitro human peripheral blood mononuclear cells | Decreased replication of the H1N2. | [58] |
| Honeydew, manuka, and rewarewa honey | Adenovirus, rubella virus, and HSV | In vitro | Increased antiviral activity with the concentration of honey and time the virus was exposed to it. | [59] |