Table 3.

Features of Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanoparticles Regulate Intestinal Microenvironment

Source	Exosome Features	Mechanisms	Ref.
Ginger	∼125 miRNAs, ginger bioactive constituents (6-gingerol and 6-shogaol).	Promoting proliferation of IECs, reducing the pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β), and increasing the anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10 and IL-22)	[85]
Mulberry bark	HSPA8 protein	Alleviate mouse colitis via the AhR/COPS8 pathway.	[163]
Lemon	Metabolites from lemon	Manipulate gut microenvironment	[83]
Citrus sinensis	_	Modulating inflammatory genes and maintaining a healthy intestinal epithelium	[82]
Broccoli	Lipid	Retardation DSS-induced colitis	[80]
Tea leaf	Lipid, protein, polyphenols and flavones	Induce reactive oxygen species, inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines, and promote the production of anti-inflammatory IL-10	[34]
Turmeric	Lipid and protein	Decreasing the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β), and increasing the levels of HO-1	[164]

Abbreviations: IECs, intestinal epithelial cells; DSS, Dextran Sulfate Sodium Salt; AhR, Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor; HO-1, heme oxygenase-1; HSPA8, heat shock protein family A member 8; COPS8, constitutive photomorphogenic homolog subunit 8.