Table 2.
Subgroup analysis results by study design.
| Outcome | References | Total studies | Estimates | Cohort (studies) | Cohort | Case-control (studies) | Case-control |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Consistent effect | |||||||
| CVD | (26) | 13 | RR: 1.24 (1.18–1.31) | 4 | 1.18 (1.09–1.29) | 4 | 1.24 (1.11–1.39) |
| MI | (26) | 8 | RR: 1.25 (1.11–1.39) | 3 | 1.17 (0.99–1.38) | 2 | 1.19 (1.05–1.36) |
| Hypertension | (28) | 16 | OR: 1.46 (1.28–1.66) | 1 | 1.37 (1.29–1.45) | 10 | 1.37 (1.14–1.64) |
| Dementia | (32) | 7 | RR: 1.16 (1.06–1.27) | 5 | 1.13 (1.11–1.16) | 1 | 1.25 (1.09–1.43) |
| Crohn's disease | (34) | 9 | OR: 1.93 (1.52–2.47) | 4 | 2.53 (1.65–3.89) | 5 | 1.70 (1.20–2.40) |
| Ulcerative colitis | (34) | 8 | OR: 1.77 (1.66–1.88) | 4 | 1.72 (1.56–1.90) | 4 | 1.75 (1.50–2.05) |
| Celiac | (38) | 7 | OR: 2.10 (1.66–2.66) | 3 | 1.71 (1.48–1.98) | 4 | 3.09 (1.92–4.97) |
| Asthma | (41) | 6 | OR: 1.33 (1.21–1.46) | 3 | 1.34 (1.19–1.51) | 3 | 1.26 (1.00–1.58) |
| Diabetes | (43) | 38 | OR: 1.69 (1.51–1.89) | 12 | 1.40 (1.24–1.60) | 15 | 1.89 (1.47–2.35) |
| Pediatric overweight | (30) | 8 | OR: 1.54 (1.21–1.95) | 1 | 1.42 (0.44–4.53) | 6 | 1.65 (1.05–2.60) |
| Pediatric hyperlipidemia | (30) | 6 | OR: 1.84 (1.65–2.04) | 5 | 1.84 (1.65–2.04) | 1 | 2.21 (0.33–14.64) |
| Cesarean delivery | (45) | 10 | OR: 1.35 (1.14–1.60) | 8 | 1.28 (1.08–1.50) | 2 | 2.22 (0.68–7.22) |
| Multiple sclerosis | (50) | 9 | RR: 1.67 (1.46–1.91) | 5 | 1.55 (1.24–1.95) | 4 | 2.01 (1.22–3.34) |
| Osteoporosis | (55) | 7 | OR: 1.28 (0.86–1.90) | 2 | 1.04 (1.03–1.09) | 3 | 1.38 (0.95–1.99) |
| Erectile dysfunction | (51) | 9 | OR: 1.93 (1.51–2.46) | 1 | 1.27 (1.12–1.450 | 2 | 3.94 (2.87–5.41) |
| Schizophrenia | (46) | 5 | OR: 1.35 (1.20–1.53) | 1 | 1.37 (1.01–1.86) | 4 | 1.35 (1.19–1.54) |
| Inconsistent effect | |||||||
| Parkinson's Disease | (33) | 4 | OR: 1.38 (1.15–1.53) | 3 | 1.38 (1.20–1.58) | 1 | 1.25 (0.51–3.06) |
| Hepatitis C | (37) | 8 | OR: 1.70 (1.12–2.57) | 2 | 2.01 (1.67–2.42) | 2 | 0.92 (0.14–6.00) |
| Helicobacter pylori Infection | (36) | 11 | OR: 1.70 (1.15–2.52) | 3 | 1.64 (0.73–3.70) | 4 | 1.20 (0.55–2.65) |
CVD, cardiovascular disease; MI, myocardial infarction.