FIGURE 1.

Typical phenomena induced by radiation damage under electron beam. (A) Reflection fade phenomena: Sequential electron diffraction patterns of purple membrane 2D crystals under a series of electron dose. As the dose increases, the spots fade, indicating cumulative radiation damage to the crystal. Reproduced with permission (Peet et al., 2019). (B) Distortion phenomena: Time series of SWNT images under constant electron beam irradiation. Reproduced with permission (Warner et al., 2009). (C) Bubbling phenomena: Bubbles appear with increased electron dose. Reproduced with permission (Daffner et al., 2020). (D) Structure-changing phenomena: Radiation damage in vitrified SV40 samples. Fine structural details are progressively lost in the SV40 particles as the electron dose increases from 10 to 40 e⁻ Å⁻². Reproduced with permission (Baker et al., 1999).