Table 1. Logistic regression showing factors associated with perceived risk of COVID-19 infection (n=1,649).
| Variable | n (%) | High perceived risk | Unadjusted | Adjusted | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n (%) | OR (95% CI) | p-value | OR (95% CI) | p-value | ||
| Country | ||||||
| Pakistan (R) | 263 (15.9) | 52 (19.8) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Brazil | 107 (6.5) | 40 (37.4) | 2.42 (1.48 – 3.98) | <0.001 | 2.32 (1.13 – 4.77) | 0.022 |
| Chile | 106 (6.4) | 23 (21.7) | 1.12 (0.65 – 1.95) | 0.677 | 1.40 (0.66 – 2.97) | 0.379 |
| Egypt | 98 (6.0) | 50 (51.0) | 4.23 (2.57 – 6.96) | <0.001 | 2.35 (1.36 – 4.07) | 0.002 |
| India | 339 (20.6) | 149 (44.0) | 3.18 (2.19 – 4.61) | <0.001 | 4.28 (2.33 – 7.86) | <0.001 |
| Iran | 141 (8.6) | 53 (37.6) | 2.44 (1.55 – 3.86) | <0.001 | 1.30 (0.75 – 2.24) | 0.353 |
| Nigeria | 161 (9.8) | 28 (17.4) | 0.85 (0.51 – 1.42) | 0.543 | 1.00 (0.50 – 2.00) | 0.995 |
| Bangladesh | 131 (7.9) | 54 (41.2) | 2.85 (1.79 – 4.52) | <0.001 | 2.86 (1.68 – 4.87) | <0.001 |
| Sudan | 174 (10.6) | 76 (43.7) | 3.15 (2.05 – 4.82) | <0.001 | 1.61 (0.97 – 2.67) | 0.066 |
| Tunisia | 129 (7.8) | 75 (58.1) | 5.64 (3.55 – 8.96) | <0.001 | 3.66 (2.12 – 6.32) | <0.001 |
| Age group (year) | ||||||
| <20 (R) | 280 (17.0) | 63 (22.5) | 1 | 1 | ||
| 21-30 | 926 (56.2) | 373 (40.3) | 2.32 (1.70 – 3.17) | <0.001 | 1.50 (1.03 – 2.18) | 0.035 |
| 31-40 | 270 (16.4) | 115 (42.6) | 2.56 (1.77 – 3.70) | <0.001 | 1.69 (1.02 – 2.82) | 0.043 |
| 41-50 | 119 (7.2) | 33 (27.7) | 1.32 (0.81 – 2.16) | 0.264 | 0.90 (0.48 – 1.69) | 0.745 |
| >51 | 54 (3.3) | 16 (29.6) | 1.45 (0.76 – 2.77) | 0.261 | 0.71 (0.31 – 1.63) | 0.423 |
| Sex | ||||||
| Male (R) | 692 (42.0) | 234 (33.8) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Female | 957 (58.0) | 366 (38.2) | 1.21 (0.99 – 1.49) | 0.065 | 1.40 (1.10 – 1.78) | 0.006 |
| Residency | ||||||
| Rural (R) | 314 (19.0) | 116 (36.9) | 1 | |||
| Urban | 1335 (81.0) | 484 (36.3) | 0.97 (0.75 – 1.25) | 0.820 | ||
| Monthly household income (USD) | ||||||
| <500 (R) | 618 (37.5) | 228 (36.9) | 1 | 1 | ||
| 500-999 | 289 (17.5) | 110 (38.1) | 1.05 (0.79 – 1.40) | 0.734 | 1.02 (0.74 – 1.40) | 0.921 |
| 1,000-1,999 | 192 (11.6) | 72 (37.5) | 1.03 (0.73 – 1.43) | 0.879 | 0.92 (0.63 – 1.35) | 0.665 |
| 2,000-2,999 | 148 (9.0) | 63 (42.6) | 1.27 (0.88 – 1.83) | 0.202 | 1.29 (0.85 – 1.98) | 0.236 |
| 3,000-4,999 | 128 (7.8) | 39 (30.5) | 0.75 (0.50 – 1.13) | 0.169 | 0.79 (0.50 – 1.26) | 0.319 |
| 5,000-7,999 | 100 (6.1) | 36 (36.0) | 0.96 (0.62 – 1.49) | 0.864 | 1.00 (0.60 – 1.64) | 0.984 |
| ≥8,000 | 174 (10.6) | 52 (29.9) | 0.73 (0.51 – 1.05) | 0.088 | 0.67 (0.43 – 1.05) | 0.080 |
| Religion | ||||||
| Islam (R) | 915 (55.5) | 354 (38.7) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Christian/Protestant/Methodist/Lutheran/Baptist | 179 (10.9) | 46 (25.7) | 0.55 (0.38 – 0.79) | 0.001 | 0.65 (0.38 – 1.11) | 0.117 |
| Catholic | 127 (7.7) | 41 (32.3) | 0.76 (0.51 – 1.12) | 0.164 | 0.68 (0.37 – 1.25) | 0.213 |
| Hindu | 239 (14.5) | 92 (38.5) | 0.99 (0.74 – 1.33) | 0.956 | 0.44 (0.26 – 0.74) | 0.002 |
| Atheist or agnostic | 87 (5.3) | 25 (28.7) | 0.64 (0.39 – 1.04) | 0.069 | 0.50 (0.27 – 0.93) | 0.028 |
| Others | 102 (6.2) | 42 (41.2) | 1.11 (0.73 – 1.68) | 0.625 | 0.84 (0.49 – 1.43) | 0.510 |
| Healthcare-related job | ||||||
| No (R) | 908 (55.1) | 261 (28.7) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 741 (44.9) | 339 (45.7) | 2.09 (1.71 – 2.56) | <0.001 | 1.48 (1.16 – 1.89) | 0.002 |
| Have hypertension | ||||||
| No a (R) | 1102 (66.8) | 404 (36.7) | 1 | |||
| Yes b | 97 (5.9) | 34 (35.1) | 0.93 (0.60 – 1.44) | 0.752 | ||
| Do not know | 450 (27.3) | 162 (36.0) | 0.97 (0.77 – 1.22) | 0.806 | ||
| Have diabetes | ||||||
| No a (R) | 1190 (72.2) | 447 (37.6) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes b | 58 (3.5) | 19 (32.8) | 0.81 (0.46 – 1.42) | 0.461 | 0.79 (0.40 – 1.55) | 0.487 |
| Do not know | 401 (24.3) | 134 (33.4) | 0.83 (0.66 – 1.06) | 0.136 | 0.79 (0.56 – 1.13) | 0.200 |
| Have heart disease | ||||||
| No a (R) | 1093 (66.3) | 395 (36.1) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes b | 55 (3.3) | 26 (47.3) | 1.58 (0.92 – 2.73) | 0.097 | 1.59 (0.82 – 3.07) | 0.166 |
| Do not know | 501 (30.4) | 179 (35.7) | 0.98 (0.79 – 1.23) | 0.874 | 1.07 (0.71 – 1.59) | 0.755 |
| Have pulmonary disease | ||||||
| No a (R) | 1044 (63.3) | 371 (35.5) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes b | 90 (5.5) | 51 (56.7) | 2.37 (1.53 – 3.67) | <0.001 | 2.44 (1.48 – 4.05) | 0.001 |
| Do not know | 515 (31.2) | 178 (34.6) | 0.96 (0.77 – 1.20) | 0.705 | 1.22 (0.82 – 1.82) | 0.335 |
| Know people in immediate social environment who are or have been infected with COVID-19 | ||||||
| No (R) | 508 (30.8) | 105 (20.7) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 1141 (69.2) | 495 (43.4) | 2.94 (2.30 – 3.76) | <0.001 | 2.05 (1.55 – 2.70) | <0.001 |
| Have you seen or read about individuals infected with the COVID-19 on social media or TV? | ||||||
| No (R) | 121 (7.3) | 27 (22.3) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 1528 (92.7) | 573 (37.5) | 2.09 (1.34 – 3.24) | <0.001 | 1.72 (1.06 – 2.77) | 0.027 |
| Occupation | ||||||
| Self-employed (R) | 155 (9.4) | 42 (27.1) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Employed for wages | 417 (25.3) | 177 (42.4) | 1.98 (1.33 – 2.97) | <0.001 | 2.22 (1.43 – 3.45) | <0.001 |
| Out of work for less 1 year AND more than 1 year | 73 (4.4) | 23 (31.5) | 1.24 (0.67 – 2.27) | 0.492 | 1.49 (0.77 – 2.89) | 0.241 |
| Homemaker | 34 (2.1) | 12 (35.3) | 1.47 (0.67 – 3.23) | 0.340 | 1.65 (0.68 – 4.00) | 0.272 |
| Student | 948 (57.5) | 330 (34.8) | 1.44 (0.98 – 2.10) | 0.061 | 2.05 (1.31 – 3.22) | 0.002 |
| Retired or unable to work | 22 (1.3) | 16 (72.7) | 7.18 (2.63 – 19.56) | <0.001 | 11.36 (3.81 – 33.87) | <0.001 |
| Has how much your work changed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic? | ||||||
| No change and not applicable (not working) (R) | 1009 (61.2) | 349 (34.6) | 1 | 1 | ||
| I work more hours | 300 (18.2) | 126 (42.0) | 1.37 (1.05 – 1.78) | 0.019 | 1.17 (0.85 – 1.59) | 0.336 |
| I work fewer hours | 286 (17.3) | 107 (37.4) | 1.13 (0.86 – 1.48) | 0.378 | 1.02 (0.75 – 1.39) | 0.900 |
| I was let go from my job | 54 (3.3) | 18 (33.3) | 0.95 (0.53 – 1.69) | 0.850 | 0.90 (0.46 – 1.74) | 0.753 |
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; R, reference group.
a
Have been tested or examined by a doctor but negative.
b
Have been diagnosed by a doctor.