Table 2. Logistic regression showing factors associated with perceived risk of dying from COVID-19 if infected (n=1,649).
| Variable | n (%) | High perceived risk | Unadjusted | Adjusted | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n (%) | OR (95% CI) | p-value | OR (95% CI) | p-value | ||
| Country | ||||||
| Pakistan (R) | 263 (15.9) | 65 (24.7) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Brazil | 107 (6.5) | 25 (23.4) | 0.93 (0.55 – 1.58) | 0.784 | 0.88 (0.40 – 1.92) | 0.745 |
| Chile | 106 (6.4) | 16 (15.1) | 0.54 (0.30 – 0.99) | 0.045 | 0.70 (0.30 – 1.60) | 0.392 |
| Egypt | 98 (6.0) | 26 (26.5) | 1.10 (0.65 – 1.87) | 0.724 | 1.00 (0.56 – 1.80) | 0.990 |
| India | 339 (20.6) | 56 (16.5) | 0.60 (0.40 – 0.90) | 0.013 | 0.93 (0.49 – 1.78) | 0.823 |
| Iran | 141 (8.6) | 32 (22.7) | 0.89 (0.55 – 1.45) | 0.651 | 0.63 (0.35 – 1.13) | 0.117 |
| Nigeria | 161 (9.8) | 25 (15.5) | 0.56 (0.34 – 0.93) | 0.026 | 0.83 (0.40 – 1.73) | 0.622 |
| Bangladesh | 131 (7.9) | 47 (35.9) | 1.70 (1.08 – 2.68) | 0.021 | 2.10 (1.23 – 3.58) | 0.006 |
| Sudan | 174 (10.6) | 44 (25.3) | 1.03 (0.66 – 1.60) | 0.892 | 0.74 (0.44 – 1.25) | 0.260 |
| Tunisia | 129 (7.8) | 34 (26.4) | 1.09 (0.67 – 1.77) | 0.725 | 0.80 (0.45 – 1.44) | 0.462 |
| Age group (year) | ||||||
| <20 (R) | 280 (17.0) | 54 (19.3) | 1 | 1 | ||
| 21-30 | 926 (56.2) | 207 (22.4) | 1.21 (0.86 – 1.68) | 0.275 | 1.23 (0.83 – 1.85) | 0.305 |
| 31-40 | 270 (16.4) | 68 (25.2) | 1.41 (0.94 – 2.11) | 0.097 | 1.57 (0.90 – 2.75) | 0.116 |
| 41-50 | 119 (7.2) | 22 (18.5) | 0.95 (0.55 – 1.65) | 0.853 | 1.20 (0.60 – 2.40) | 0.613 |
| >51 | 54 (3.3) | 19 (35.2) | 2.27 (1.21 – 4.28) | 0.011 | 2.70 (1.21 – 5.99) | 0.015 |
| Gender | ||||||
| Male (R) | 692 (42.0) | 137 (19.8) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Female | 957 (58.0) | 233 (24.3) | 1.30 (1.03 – 1.65) | 0.029 | 1.58 (1.20 – 2.08) | 0.001 |
| Residency | ||||||
| Rural (R) | 314 (19.0) | 70 (22.3) | 1 | |||
| Urban | 1335 (81.0) | 300 (22.5) | 1.01 (0.75 – 1.36) | 0.945 | ||
| Monthly household income (USD) | ||||||
| <500 (R) | 618 (37.5) | 167 (27.0) | 1 | 1 | ||
| 500-999 | 289 (17.5) | 66 (22.8) | 0.80 (0.58 – 1.11) | 0.179 | 0.80 (0.56 – 1.14) | 0.212 |
| 1,000-1,999 | 192 (11.6) | 36 (18.8) | 0.62 (0.42 – 0.93) | 0.022 | 0.58 (0.38 – 0.90) | 0.015 |
| 2,000-2,999 | 148 (9.0) | 36 (24.3) | 0.87 (0.57 – 1.32) | 0.504 | 0.94 (0.59 – 1.49) | 0.777 |
| 3,000-4,999 | 128 (7.8) | 23 (18.0) | 0.59 (0.36 – 0.96) | 0.034 | 0.62 (0.36 – 1.05) | 0.076 |
| 5,000-7,999 | 100 (6.1) | 21 (21.0) | 0.72 (0.43 – 1.20) | 0.205 | 0.73 (0.42 – 1.28) | 0.267 |
| ≥8,000 | 174 (10.6) | 21 (12.1) | 0.37 (0.23 – 0.61) | <0.001 | 0.34 (0.19 – 0.60) | <0.001 |
| Religion | ||||||
| Islam (R) | 915 (55.5) | 242 (26.4) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Christian/Protestant/Methodist/Lutheran/Baptist | 179 (10.9) | 24 (13.4) | 0.43 (0.27 – 0.68) | <0.001 | 0.54 (0.29 – 1.00) | 0.051 |
| Catholic | 127 (7.7) | 28 (22.0) | 0.79 (0.50 – 1.23) | 0.290 | 0.96 (0.50 – 1.85) | 0.902 |
| Hindu | 239 (14.5) | 32 (13.4) | 0.43 (0.29 – 0.64) | <0.001 | 0.44 (0.24 – 0.81) | 0.008 |
| Atheist or agnostic | 87 (5.3) | 18 (20.7) | 0.73 (0.42 – 1.24) | 0.243 | 0.93 (0.47 – 1.84) | 0.840 |
| Others | 102 (6.2) | 26 (25.5) | 0.95 (0.60 – 1.52) | 0.835 | 1.05 (0.58 – 1.90) | 0.862 |
| Healthcare-related job | ||||||
| No (R) | 908 (55.1) | 198 (21.8) | 1 | |||
| Yes | 741 (44.9) | 172 (23.2) | 1.08 (0.86 – 1.37) | 0.496 | ||
| Have hypertension | ||||||
| No a (R) | 1102 (66.8) | 227 (20.6) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes b | 97 (5.9) | 32 (33.0) | 1.90 (1.21 – 2.97) | 0.005 | 1.29 (0.75 – 2.22) | 0.365 |
| Do not know | 450 (27.3) | 111 (24.7) | 1.26 (0.97 – 1.64) | 0.078 | 1.38 (0.96 – 1.99) | 0.087 |
| Have diabetes | ||||||
| No a (R) | 1190 (72.2) | 266 (22.4) | 1 | |||
| Yes b | 58 (3.5) | 16 (27.6) | 1.32 (0.73 – 2.39) | 0.353 | ||
| Do not know | 401 (24.3) | 88 (21.9) | 0.98 (0.74 – 1.28) | 0.865 | ||
| Have heart disease | ||||||
| No a (R) | 1093 (66.3) | 233 (21.3) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes b | 55 (3.3) | 24 (43.6) | 2.86 (1.65 – 4.96) | <0.001 | 2.35 (1.20 – 4.60) | 0.013 |
| Do not know | 501 (30.4) | 113 (22.6) | 1.08 (0.83 – 1.39) | 0.578 | 1.03 (0.67 – 1.58) | 0.901 |
| Have pulmonary disease | ||||||
| No a (R) | 1044 (63.3) | 215 (20.6) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes b | 90 (5.5) | 42 (46.7) | 3.37 (2.17 – 5.24) | <0.001 | 2.88 (1.73 – 4.78) | <0.001 |
| Do not know | 515 (31.2) | 113 (21.9) | 1.08 (0.84 – 1.40) | 0.539 | 0.88 (0.57 – 1.37) | 0.578 |
| Know people in immediate social environment who are or have been infected with COVID-19 | ||||||
| No (R) | 508 (30.8) | 93 (18.3) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 1141 (69.2) | 277 (24.3) | 1.43 (1.10 – 1.86) | 0.007 | 1.51 (1.11 – 2.05) | 0.008 |
| Have you seen or read about individuals infected with the COVID-19 on social media or TV? | ||||||
| No (R) | 121 (7.3) | 33 (27.3) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 1528 (92.7) | 337 (22.1) | 0.76 (0.50 – 1.15) | 0.187 | 0.70 (0.44 – 1.10) | 0.122 |
| Occupation | ||||||
| Self-employed (R) | 155 (9.4) | 35 (22.6) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Employed for wages | 417 (25.3) | 103 (24.7) | 1.13 (0.73 – 1.74) | 0.599 | 1.12 (0.69 – 1.81) | 0.643 |
| Out of work for less 1 year AND more than 1 year | 73 (4.4) | 23 (31.5) | 1.58 (0.85 – 2.94) | 0.150 | 1.64(0.83 – 3.25) | 0.153 |
| Homemaker | 34 (2.1) | 12 (35.3) | 1.87 (0.84 – 4.15) | 0.124 | 1.52 (0.63 – 3.68) | 0.351 |
| Student | 948 (57.5) | 192 (20.3) | 0.87 (0.58 – 1.31) | 0.507 | 0.92 (0.56 – 1.49) | 0.720 |
| Retired or unable to work | 22 (1.3) | 5 (22.7) | 1.01 (0.35 – 2.93) | 0.988 | 0.70 (0.21 – 2.31) | 0.558 |
| Has how much your work changed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic? | ||||||
| No change or not applicable (not working) (R) | 1009 (61.2) | 203 (20.1) | 1 | 1 | ||
| I work more hours | 300 (18.2) | 80 (26.7) | 1.44 (1.07 – 1.95) | 0.016 | 1.39 (0.99 – 1.96) | 0.056 |
| I work fewer hours | 286 (17.3) | 71 (24.8) | 1.31 (0.96 – 1.79) | 0.086 | 1.25 (0.89 – 1.75) | 0.192 |
| I was let go from my job | 54 (3.3) | 16 (29.6) | 1.67 (0.91 – 3.06) | 0.095 | 1.26 (0.65 – 2.46) | 0.497 |
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; R, reference group.
a
Have been tested or examined by a doctor but negative.
b
Have been diagnosed by a doctor.