Table 2. Key characteristics of included studies listed in order of motor learning paradigm.
| Study details | Sample | Group characteristics: sample size, (Age (years)±SD), (location and Pain score ±SD) | Motor learning | Pain paradigm | Timing of pain | Task performance measure | Activity dependent plasticity measure |
| Motor Sequence Learning | |||||||
|
Bilodeau et al (2016) [31]
Between-subject |
N = 45 healthy subjects (66% female). | 1) Control n = 15 (28.8±8.8). 2) Local pain n = 15 (27.4±7.1). (dorsal wrist, NRS = 4.5) 3) Remote pain n = 15 (M28.5±9.5). (lateral left leg NRS 3.9) |
Explicit Sequential Finger tapping task -(4-1-3-2-4) - 10 blocks of 30secs. | Tonic/thermal | Acquisition. Not pre and post testing. |
1) Error rate: mean number of errors per completed sequence. 2) Speed: number of completed sequences per 30s. |
N/A |
|
Brown et al (2022) [44]
Between-subject |
N = 38 subjects (66% female) | 1) Control n = 21 (24.76±3.85) 2) CNP group n = 17 (24.47±3.69) current episode of neck pain > 3 months & NDI > 4%. |
Implicit and Explicit modified serial reaction task involving reaching to central and peripheral targets on a screen. | Clinical neck pain | Pain scores collected prior to, and after testing not during. | 1) Average time reaching to targets. 2) Total hand path distance during reaching |
N/A |
|
Dancey et al (2014) [30]
Between-subject |
N = 24 healthy subjects (46% female). | 1) Vehicle control n = 12 (23.4±2.0) 2) Pain group n = 12 (24.5±6.6) (Lateral elbow, NRS 4–5) |
Implicit Repetitive typing task—Random order 3 numbers, (e.g., 9, 7, 8, 7, 9, 8) - 20mins. | Tonic/Capsaicin (0.075% Zostrix) | Acquisition, pre-testing, and post testing. | 1) Accuracy: number of correct responses pressed divided by the total number of combinations presented. 2) Reaction time from number sequence presentation to key press (ms). |
1) Somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) peaks. |
|
Dancey et al (2016) [32]
Between-subject |
N = 24 healthy subjects (54% female). | 1) Vehicle control n = 12 (22.8±2.0). 2) Pain n = 12 (20.8±3.3) (Lateral elbow, NRS 6) |
Implicit Repetitive typing task—Random 8-letter sequences of 4 letters (e.g., Z, D, P, Z, F, P, D, D) - 15mins. | Tonic/Capsaicin (0.075% Zostrix) | Acquisition, pre-testing, and post testing. Not retention. | 1) Accuracy: number of correct responses pressed divided by the total number of combinations presented. 2) Reaction time: number sequence presentation to key press (ms). |
1) Somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) peaks. |
| Visuomotor Learning | |||||||
|
Andrew et al (2018) [46]
Between-subject |
N = 24 subjects (50% female). | 1) Control n = 12 (22.75 range 21–27) 2) SCNP n = 12 (23.0 range 20–28) (grade I–II on Von Korff chronic pain grade scale) |
Explicit Visuomotor tracing task—trace 4 different sequences of sinusoidal waves with thumb. 10 mins. | Clinical/ subclinical neck pain | No reported pain during experiment or data collected. | Accuracy: mean distance from a perfect trace expressed as a percentage (100% = one dot away from perfect trace). | 1) Somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) peaks. |
|
Boudreau et al (2007) [10]
Within-subject |
N = 9 healthy subjects (22% female). (24 SD = 1.1) |
1) Vehicle control n = 9 2) Pain n = 9 (Tongue, VAS 5.1±0.6) |
Explicit tongue protrusion task–using tongue to apply pressure to force plate to keep cursor within a moving target. 15 mins. | Tonic/Capsaicin (1% cream) | Acquisition | 1) Accuracy: percentage of time spent within the target. | 1) Single-pulse TMS measures. |
| Study details | Sample | Group characteristics: sample size, (Age (years)±SD), (location and Pain score ±SD) | Motor learning | Pain paradigm | Timing of pain | Task performance measure | Activity dependent plasticity measure |
|
Dancey et al (2016) [33]
Between-subject |
N = 24 healthy subjects (58% female). | 1) Vehicle control n = 12 (22.8±2.0) 2) Pain group n = 12 (20.8±3.3) (Lateral elbow, NRS 3–4) |
Explicit Visuomotor tracing task—trace 4 different sequences of sinusoidal waves with thumb. 15 mins. | Tonic/Capsaicin (0.075% Zostrix) | Acquisition, pre-testing, and post testing. Not retention. | 1) Accuracy: mean distance from a perfect trace expressed as a percentage (100% = one dot away from perfect trace). | 1) Somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) peaks. |
|
Dancey et al (2019) [16]
Between-subject |
N = 24 healthy subjects (75% female). | 1) Vehicle control n = 12 (20.7±1.4) 2) Pain group n = 12 (19.9±0.9) (Lateral elbow, NRS 4–5) |
Explicit Visuomotor tracing task—trace 4 different sequences of sinusoidal waves with thumb. 15 mins. | Tonic/Capsaicin (0.075% Zostrix) | Acquisition, pre and post-test. Not retention. | Accuracy: mean distance from a perfect trace expressed as a percentage (100% = one dot away from perfect trace). | 1) Single-pulse TMS measures. |
|
Mavromatis et al (2017) [34]
Between-subject |
N = 30 healthy subjects (50% female) | 1) Control n = 15 (27±6) 2) Pain group n = 15 (26±6) (Lateral border first metacarpal, NRS 3.5–4.5) |
Explicit modified version of the sequential pinch test—10 blocks of 15 trials. | Tonic/Capsaicin (1% cream) | Acquisition | 1) Accuracy: Proportion of missed targets within a block. 2) Movement time: mean duration of sequences in a given block (secs) 3) Skill Measure: speed-accuracy trade-off equation. |
1) Single-pulse TMS measures. 2) Intracortical paired-pulse TMS measures. |
|
Rittig-Rasmussen et al (2014) [35]
Between-subject |
N = 40 healthy subjects (60% female) aged 20–32 (mean = SD: 23±2) years |
1) Vehicle control n = 20 (isotonic saline, NRS 1.1±0.2) 2) Pain group n = 20 (right side of neck, NRS 4.8±0.4) |
Explicit shoulder elevation and depression training following a trace—70 reps. |
Tonic/
Hypertonic saline injection |
Acquisition | 1) Error: deviations from the feedback curve between first five and last five reps (% improvement). | N/A |
| Ballistic movements | |||||||
|
Ingham et al (2011) [13]
Within-subject |
N = 9 healthy subjects (66% female). (M = 21.4 SD = 2.3) | 1) Vehicle control n = 9 (isotonic saline, VAS 0.2±0.4) 2) Local Pain group n = 9 (FDI, VAS 1.7±1.0) 3) Remote pain condition n = 9 (infra-patella fat pad, VAS 2.1±1.6) |
Explicit repeated voluntary finger movement opposing direction to that induced by TMS stimulation—3 blocks of 8 sets of 50secs duration. |
Tonic/
Hypertonic saline injection (5% NaCl) |
Acquisition | 1) Acceleration of index finger during training. | 1) Single-pulse TMS measures. 2) TMS evoked peak acceleration. |
|
Parker et al (2017) [42]
Between-subject |
N = 43 subjects (72% female). | 1) Control (no pain) n = 20 (71±7) 2) Hand OA n = 23 (72±6) (NRS >3 at least every other day) |
Explicit repeated voluntary finger movement opposing direction to that induced by TMS stimulation– 30mins training, speed set by auditory cue. | Clinical/ thumb osteoarthritis | No reported pain during experiment or data collected. | 1) Percentage of accurate twitches: number of training twitches completed within 500ms of auditory cue within 27.5degrees of the training direction. | 1) Number of TMS-induced twitches in the baseline direction and training direction. 2) Single-pulse TMS measures. 3) Intracortical paired-pulse TMS measures. |
| Study details | Sample | Group characteristics: sample size, (Age (years)±SD), (location and Pain score ±SD) | Motor learning | Pain paradigm | Timing of pain | Task performance measure | Activity dependent plasticity measure |
|
Vallence et al (2013) [43]
Between-subject |
N = 29 subjects (59% female). | 1) Control (no pain) n = 18 (28±8) 2) CTTH n = 11 (35±13.2) (NRS 3.5±1.7) |
Explicit repeated voluntary thumb abduction movement–rate 0.25Hz– 2 blocks of 225reps. | Clinical/chronic tension type headache | Pain score collected prior to training only. | 1) Peak acceleration of initial movement. | 1) Single-pulse TMS measures. |
| Motor Adaptation | |||||||
|
Bouffard et al (2014) [39]
Between-subject |
N = 30 healthy subjects (50% female). | 1) Control n = 15 (26±2.1) 2) Pain group n = 15 (26±1.4) (Ankle, VAS 4.8–3.9) |
Explicit locomotor force adaptation task–AFO applied a force field resisting right ankle dorsiflexion during mid-swing - 20mins walking (5 mins involved adaptation) | Tonic/Capsaicin (1% cream) | Acquisition not retention | 1) Mean absolute error of plantar flexion from a constructed baseline ankle angular displacement curve. 2) Peak plantar flexion error: direction the force pushes the foot. 3) EMG TA activity. |
N/A |
|
Bouffard et al (2016) [38]
Between-subject |
N = 37 healthy subjects (49% female). | 1) Control n = 24 (25.8±0.85) 2) Pain group n = 13 (26±1.15) (Ankle, VAS 5.5–5.6) |
Explicit locomotor force adaptation task–AFO applied a force field resisting right ankle dorsiflexion during mid-swing - 20mins walking (5 mins adaptation) | Tonic/Capsaicin (1% cream) | Acquisition and retention | 1) Mean absolute error of plantar flexion from a constructed ankle angular displacement curve measured at baseline. 2) Relative timing of error 3) EMG TA and Soleus activity. |
N/A |
|
Bouffard et al (2018) [40]
Between-subject |
N = 47 healthy subjects (45% female). | 1) Control n = 30 (25±1) 2) Pain group n = 17 (25±1) (Ankle, peak VAS 5.3) |
Explicit locomotor force adaptation task–AFO applied a force field resisting right ankle dorsiflexion during mid-swing– 20mins walking (5 mins adaptation) | Tonic/ Hypertonic saline injection (5% NaCl) | Acquisition not retention | 1) Mean absolute error of plantar flexion from a constructed ankle angular displacement curve measured at baseline. 2) Relative timing of error 3) EMG TA and Soleus activity. |
N/A |
|
Dupuis et al (2022) [45]
Between-subject |
N = 17 subjects with isolated ankle pathology: Ankle fracture or OA (65% female) | 1) No pain group n = 9 (43.6±14.6) 2) Pain group n = 8 (54.9±13.9) (VAS Day 1 2.1±1.3, Day 2 2.3±0.8) |
Explicit locomotor force adaptation task–AFO applied a force field resisting right ankle dorsiflexion during mid-swing– 20mins walking (5 mins adaptation) | Isolated ankle pathology–self-reported constant clinical pain during learning task | Acquisition and retention | 1) Mean absolute error of plantar flexion from a constructed ankle angular displacement curve measured at baseline. 2) Relative timing of error. 3) EMG TA activity. |
N/A |
|
Lamothe et al (2014) [36]
Between-subject |
N = 29 healthy subjects (52% female). | 1) Control n = 14 (26.6±4.8) 2) Pain group n = 15 (25.8±4.1) (Upper arm, VAS 7.8–7.5) |
Explicit ballistic reaching force adaptation task–robotic exoskeleton– 100 reps per session | Tonic/Capsaicin (1% cream) | Acquisition not retention | 1) Final error (fERR). 2) The initial angle of deviation (iANG). |
N/A |
| Study details | Sample | Group characteristics: sample size, (Age (years)±SD), (location and Pain score ±SD) | Motor learning | Pain paradigm | Timing of pain | Task performance measure | Activity dependent plasticity measure |
|
Salomoni et al (2019) [37]
Between-subject |
N = 22 healthy subjects (54% female). (M 28±6yr) |
1) Vehicle control n = 11 (isotonic saline) 2) Pain group n = 11 (deltoid, VAS 3–4.2) |
Explicit ballistic reaching force adaptation task–robotic manipulandum– 100 reps per session | Tonic/ Hypertonic saline (5% NaCl) injection | Acquisition not retention | 1) Movement accuracy: peak hand speed, peak perpendicular error, and force adaptation index. 2) Initial rate of learning. 3) Movement strategy: measured using EMG. |
N/A |
| Ecological | |||||||
|
Arieh et al (2021) [41]
Between-subject |
N = 30 healthy subjects (0% female). (Range 18–25) | 1) Control n = 10 2) Local Pain group n = 10 (lateral elbow, VAS 7.21±0.12) 3) Remote pain condition n = 10 (upper part of knee, VAS 7.13±0.13) |
Explicit Dart throwing Task– 10 blocks of 15 dart throws. | Tonic/Capsaicin (1% cream) | Acquisition not pre and post-test. | 1) Throwing accuracy 2) Movement variability: motion camera analysis. |
N/A |
Abbreviations: TMS, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation; SEPs, Somatosensory Evoked Potentials; EMG, Electromyography; AFO, Ankle Foot Orthosis; FDI, First Dorsal Interosseous; PFC, Peak Force Command; TA, Tibilais Anterior; iANG, Initial Angle of Deviation; fERR, Final Error; CTTH, Chronic Tension Type Headache; SCNP, Subclinical Neck Pain; CNP, Clinical Neck Pain; OA, Osteoarthritis; NRS, Numerical Rating Scale; NDI, Neck Disability Index; VAS, Visual Analogue Scale.