Table 1.
A list of recent Time-Restricted Eating trials in humans and their key outcomes
| Study Design | Duration | TRE Intervention | Participants | Age | Outcome | Study |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Randomized control | 12 weeks | TRE: 10 h, 8 am-6 pm |
n = 60, diabetic |
18–70 yr |
↓ Body weight, HbA1c ↑ Insulin sensitivity |
[148] |
| Randomized control | 8 weeks | TRE: 10 h, |
n = 60, obese |
18–65 yr | ↓ Body weight, Fasting glucose, | [149] |
| Randomized control | 12 weeks | TRE: 8 h | n = 20 (17 females, 3 males), overweight | 33–58 yr | ↓ Body weight, lean mass, and visceral fat mass | [22] |
| Longitudinal | 12 weeks | TRE: 8 h (10 am–6 pm) | n = 14, overweight | 25–65 yr |
↓ Body weight, fat mass, systolic blood pressure ↔ Gut microbiome |
[150] |
| Cross-over | 5 days |
TRE: 8 h (10 am–6 pm) Extended eating: 15 h (7 am–10 pm) |
n = 11 males, overweight | 32–43 yr |
↓ Night-time glucose, glucose and insulin iAUC after lunch ↔ Daytime glucose ↑ TG after lunch |
[140] |
| Longitudinal | 12 weeks |
TRE: 10 h (self-selected, dinner before 8 pm): Baseline: ≥ 14 h |
n = 19 (6 females, 13 males), overweight | 48–70 yr |
↓ Body weight, fat mass, waist circumference, blood pressure, plasma cholesterol ↔ Fasting glucose, HbA1c, HOMA-IR, fasting insulin |
[130] |
| Longitudinal | 4 weeks | TRE: 8 h | n = 10 (6 females, 4 males), overweight, | ≥ 65 yr |
↓ Body weight ↑ Quality of life |
[151] |
| Longitudinal | 13 weeks | TRE: 8–9 h | n = 40 (31 females, 9 males), with abdominal obesity | 36–62 yr | ↓ Waist circumference, HbA1c | [152] |
| Randomized control | 8 weeks |
TRE: 8 h (12 pm–8 pm) TRE plus β-hydroxy β-methyl butyrate |
n = 40 females, resistance trained normal weight |
18–30 yr |
↓ Fat mass ↑ Muscle performance |
[153] |
| Cross-over | 4 days | TRE: 6 h (8 am–2 pm) | n = 11 (4 females and 7 males), overweight | 25–39 yr |
↓ Mean 24-h glucose, glycemic excursions, morning ghrelin, desire to eat ↑ metabolic flexibility, fullness, plasma ketones, fat oxidation |
[139, 154] |
| Cross-over | 1 week |
Early TRE: 9 h (8 am–5 pm) delayed TRE: 9 h (12 pm–9 pm) |
n = 15 males, overweight | 52–58 yr |
↓ Body weight, fasting TG, and hunger ↓ Mean fasting glucose by CGM in eTRE ↑ Glucose tolerance |
[21] |
| Cross-over | 5 weeks | TRE: 6 h (8 am–2 pm, dinner before 3 pm) | n = 8 males, overweight | 47–65 yr |
↓ Fasting TG, desire to eat in the evening ↑ Insulin sensitivity, β cell responsiveness ↔ Body weight |
[20] |
| Historical control | 12 weeks | TRE: 8 h (10 am–6 pm) | n = 23 (20 females, 3 males), obese | 25–65 yr |
↓ Body weight and blood pressure ↔ Fat mass, fasting glucose, LDL cholesterol, TG |
[155] |
| Randomized control | 8 weeks | TRE: 4 h (anytime 4 pm to midnight) for 4 days a week | n = 18 resistance trained males normal weight | 18–27 yr | ↔ Body weight, fat mass | [156] |
| Randomized control | 8 weeks | TRE: 8 h (1 pm–8 pm) | n = 34 males, normal weight | 25–33 yr | ↓ Fat mass, fasting glucose, fasting insulin, total testosterone, IGF-1, inflammation | [157, 158] |
| Longitudinal | 16 weeks | TRE: 10–11 h (self-selected) | n = 8 (3 females, 5 males), overweight | > 18 yr |
↓ Body weight Improved sleeping |
[159] |
| Cross-over | 7 days |
eTRE 70% calories before 5 pm vs TRE 8 h window vs ADF |
n = 32 (25 females, 8 males), obese | mean age 45.7 yr | No difference in weight loss between diets. TRE easiest to follow | [160] |
| Longitudinal | 12 weeks | eTRE + 35%CR 10 h (self-selected) vs 35% CR alone | n = 81 (69 females, 12 males | mean age 38 yr | No difference in weight loss | [161] |
| Longitudinal | 12-weeks |
TRE 8 h (self-selected) + CGM vs Control group 12 h |
n = 50 (14 males, 36 females), obese | 14–18 yr | No difference in weight loss | [162] |
| Longitudinal | 5-weeks |
eTRE 8 h (6am-3 pm) vs mTRE 8 h (11am-8 pm) vs Control |
n = 82 (64 females, 18 males), normal weight | mean age 31 | Weight loss and improved HOMA-IR in eTRE group | [163] |
| Longitudinal | 10-weeks | TRE 10 h (8am-6 pm) | n = 15 (males), overweight | 40–70 yr |
↓ Body weight Improved GTT, ↓ Fasting glucose, HbA1c |
[164] |
| Longitudinal | 8-weeks | TRE 8 h (10am-6 pm or 12 pm-8 pm) vs Control | n = 30 (females), normal weight | 40–65 yr |
↓ Body weight ↓ Diastolic BP |
[165] |
| Cross-over | 3-days | early dinner (6 pm) vs late dinner (9 pm) | n = 12 (2 males, 10 females) | > 20 yr |
↓ Mean 24 h glucose ↓ RQ after breakfast |
[166] |
| Cross-over | 4-weeks | TRE 8 h (1 pm-9 pm) | n = 12 (males), healthy | mean age 22 yr |
↑ Exercise performance ↑ Fat-free mass |
[167] |
| Longitudinal | 3-months | TRE 10 h (10am-7 pm) | n = 50 (41 females, 9 males), overweight | 30–75 yr |
↓ Body weight ↓ Systolic BP |
[168] |
| Longitudinal | 8-weeks |
TRE 8 h (12 pm-8 pm) + Exercise vs Exercise alone |
n = 21 (18 females, 3 males), overweight | 35–60 yr |
↓ Body weight ↓ Fat mass |
[169] |
| Longitudinal | 12-weeks | TRE 8 h | n = 20 (17 females, 3 males), overweight | mean 45 yr | ↑ Quality of life | [170] |
| Longitudinal | 6-weeks | TRE 8 h (8am-4 pm) | n = 18 women with PCOS | 18–31 yr |
↓ Body weight ↓ Fat mass ↓ Fasting insulin ↓ HOMA-IR |
[171] |
| Longitudinal | 12-weeks | TRE 8 h | n = 20 (17 females, 3 males), overweight and obese | 18–65 yr | ↑ Bone mineral content | [172] |
| Longitudinal | 6-months | TRE 12 h (self-selected) vs standard dietary advice | n = 213 (152 females, 61 males), normal to overweight | > 18 yr | ↓ Body weight in TRE group | [173] |
| Longitudinal | 10-weeks |
TRE 4 h (3-7 pm) vs TRE 6 h (1-7 pm) vs Control |
n = 58 (53 females, 5 males), obese | > 18 yr | ↓ Body weight and insulin resistance in TRE groups, no diff 4 h vs 6 h | [174] |
| Longitudinal | 12-weeks | TRE 8 h (self-selected) | n = 51 (37 females, 14 males), obese | > 18 yr | ↓ Body weight in TRE group | [175] |
↓ reduced; ↑increased; ↔ no change; iAUC, incremental area under the curve; BP, blood pressure; PCOS, poly-cystic ovary syndrome