TABLE 1.
Summary of experimental studies showing developmental and harmful effects of MPs in different species and their offspring.
| S.N | Type of toxicity | Model systems | MPs types | MPs sizes and concentrations used | Reported effects and inferences | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Developmental toxicity (postnatal) | Daphnia magna | Pristine polymer microspheres | 1–5 μm (0.1 mg/L) | Decreased growth, reproduction, and population growth rate led to the extinction of F1 generation | Martins and Guilhermino, (2018) |
| MPs deposition was seen until F3 generation | ||||||
| 2 | Developmental toxicity (postnatal and prenatal) | Marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) | PS- MPs | 10 µm (20 and 200 mg/L) | Delayed incubation time reduced the heart and hatching rate and length of body of the offspring | Wang et al. (2019) |
| 3 | Developmental toxicity (postnatal) | Marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) | PS-MPs (Phenanthrene) | 10 μm (2–200 μg/L) | Higher dose deposited on the chorion reduced the growth and hatching rate and delayed hatching time. MPs at low dose do not accumulate phenanthrene | Li et al. (2020) |
| 4 | Developmental toxicity (prenatal and postnatal), and reproductive toxicity | Marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) | MPs + Phenanthrene | 13 μm (200 μg/L) | Exacerbated bradycardia in embryos, causing transgenerational toxicity from mother to offspring | Li et al. (2022) |
| 5 | Developmental toxicity (postnatal) | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | Polyamide (PA) MPs | 6.37–8.13 μm 200 mg/L | Reduced hatching rate and inhibited musculoskeletal development in zebrafish larvae | Zou et al. (2020) |
| Macrophages induced proinflammation, apoptosis, and multi-xenobiotics resistance | ||||||
| 6 | Developmental toxicity (postnatal) | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | Pristine PE-MPs (Medium density) | 20–60 μm (6.2, 12.5, 25.0, 50.0 and 100 mg/L) | Harmful effects such as bigger swim bladder, increased yolk sac, and reduced hatching rate of larvae | Malafaia et al. (2020) |
| Larvae at concentrations of 50 and 100 mg/L MPs showed more significant external morphological changes and higher teratogenic abnormality rates | ||||||
| 7 | Developmental toxicity (prenatal and postnatal) | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | Pristine PS- MPs + Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) | 65 nm to 20 μm, (2 mg/L) and (BHA, 1 mg/L) | MPs aggravate the accumulation of BHA in zebrafish larvae viz. reduced hatching rates, increased malformation rates, and decreased calcified vertebrae | Zhao et al. (2020) |
| 8 | Developmental toxicity (prenatal and postnatal) | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | Pristine PE-MPs and spiked with benzo α pyrene (MP-BaP) | 20–27 µm (1% w/w in the fish diet) | MPs and MP-BaP 30 and 90 dpf (day post-fertilization) lead to altered growth parameters such as reduced fecundity, egg morphology, and yolk area | Tarasco et al. (2022) |
| Impairment in the development of caudal fins and bone quality | ||||||
| 9 | Developmental toxicity (prenatal and postnatal) | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | PS- MPs | 10 μm (200 particles/mL) | Larvae development deformities, moderate hatching rate, and altered antioxidant and cellular function | De Marco et al. (2022) |
| 10 | Developmental (prenatal) and reproductive toxicity | Prawn | PS-MPs | (2 and 20 mg/L) | The quality of testicular germ cells and sex hormones are altered, causing decreased hatching success and survival of F1 larvae. PS-MPs bioaccumulated in different tissues of larvae and decreased immunity due to paternal exposure | Sun et al. (2022) |
| 11 | Developmental and (prenatal and postnatal) reproductive toxicity | Mice | PS nanoplastics | 100 nm (0.1, 1 and 10 mg/L) | Prenatal and postnatal PS-NPs exposure declines birth and postnatal body weight in offspring | Huang et al. (2022) |
| Transgenerational testicular toxicities in offspring (reduced testis weight and sperm counts) | ||||||
| 12 | Developmental toxicity (postnatal) | ICR Mice | PS- MPs | 0.5 and 5 µm (100 and 1,000 μg/L) | Risk of metabolic disorders in offspring | Luo et al. (2019) |
| Intergenerational effects on the F1 offspring | ||||||
| 13 | Developmental (prenatal and postnatal) reproductive toxicity | Male and female ICR mice | PE-MPs | 40–48 μm (0.125, 0.5, and 2 mg/mouse) | Reduced number of live births/dam, sex ratio, and body weight of pups | Park et al. (2020) |
| Immune disruption in the offspring of PE-treated maternal or paternal mice | ||||||
| 14 | Developmental toxicity (prenatal) | C57BL/6-mated Balb/c mice (Allogenic mice) | PS-MPs | 10 μm (250 μg/mouse) | Increased resorption rate and reduced number and diameter of uterine arterioles | Hu et al. (2021) |
| Immunological barrier homeostasis disruption in the peripheral blood, placenta, and spleen |