Table 1.

Characteristics of the included studies

Study	Design	Setting	Dashboard types	Dashboard features	Outcomes
Linder et al17 USA	Cluster randomized controlled trial	27 primary care practices	Feedback dashboard Quality dashboard displaying antibiotic prescribing and billing practices data for acute respiratory infections	Bar graph displayed clinician’s prescribing rates for acute respiratory infections for previous year (data updated monthly) vs clinic peers and national benchmarks. Dashboard allowed clinicians to “drill down” to view any individual patient medical record.	Primary: antibiotic prescribing rate for all acute respiratory infection visits. Secondary: antibiotic prescribing rate for: (1) antibiotic-appropriate acute respiratory infection visits and (2) non–antibiotic-appropriate acute respiratory infection visits.
Patel et al18 USA	Cluster randomized controlled trial	32 primary care clinics at the University of Pennsylvania Health System	Feedback dashboard An automated patient dashboard listing patients who met national guidelines for statin therapy but had not been prescribed this medication.	Dashboard linked to the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines, showed options for selecting statin dosage. Dashboard provided clinicians a list of patients who met guidelines for statin therapy but have not been prescribed, to be reviewed in 1 wk. Also provided clinician performance feedback based on baseline statin prescribing rates and compared with peers. Data were obtained from patient electronic health records.	Primary: statin prescribing rates for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in dashboard only group and dashboard with peer comparison group.
EI Miedany et al19 Europe	Randomized controlled trial	Not reported	Feedback dashboard A visual feedback tool in the management of rheumatology	Dashboard enabled patients to monitor real-time changes of their disease activity parameters and patient’s reported outcome measures. Electronic data recording in the standard rheumatology clinical practices were integrated in the visual feedback system.	Primary: the change in the patients’ adherence to medications.
Ryskina et al20 USA	Cluster randomized controlled trial	Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania	Feedback dashboard A personalized, EMR-based, real-time dashboard containing patient level details for internal medicine residents	Dashboard provided the internal medicine residents with feedback on their use of routine laboratory tests relative to service averages. Dashboard contained real-time lab ordering information which was linked to individual patients’ EMR records.	Primary outcome: the count of routine laboratory test orders placed by a physician per patient-day.
Coombs et al21 Australia	Stepped-wedge, cluster-randomized trial	4 EDs in New South Wales, Australia	Multifaceted intervention incorporating a dashboard component Real-time dashboard developed in Qlik Sense for clinicians	Dashboard provided clinicians with structured real-time audit and feedback data on department-level imaging, opioid and inpatient admission rates. Dashboard was integrated into the electronic medical record system.	Primary outcome: the proportion of low back pain presentations receiving lumbar imaging. Secondary outcomes: healthcare utilization outcomes included prescriptions of pain medicines.
Chang et al22 China	Cluster randomized crossover open controlled trial	31 township public hospitals	Feedback dashboard A computer network-based feedback dashboard for physicians	Dashboard displayed physicians’ antibiotic prescription rates, frequency and ranking updated every 10 d. Dashboard presented top 5 diseases of patients, number of prescriptions, antibiotic frequency and prescription rate, precautions and contraindications for antibiotics being use. Enabled pop-up window to automatically prompt physicians to check for the feedback information every 10 d.	Primary outcome: 10-d antibiotic prescription rate of physicians (defined as the number of antibiotic prescriptions divided by the total number of the prescriptions in each 10-d time period).
Du et al23 USA	Randomized controlled trial	A telemedicine practice	Multifaceted intervention incorporating a dashboard component Individualized prescribing feedback dashboards for clinicians	Dashboard displayed monthly rates of personal and practice-wide antibiotic prescription rates starting May 2018 and summarized antibiotic prescription rates for the previous month. Data were collected from patient electronic health records.	Primary outcome: antibiotic prescription rates for each of the 4 diagnostic categories: upper respiratory infection, bronchitis, sinusitis, and pharyngitis.
Jung et al24 South Korea	Randomized controlled trial	A university hospital	Feedback dashboard ICT-based centralized monitoring dashboard for increasing medication adherence among kidney transplant recipients	The ICT based centralized monitoring system alerted both patients and medical staff with texts and pill box alarms.	Primary outcome: medical adherence among kidney transplant recipients.
Peiris et al25 Australia	Cluster Randomized Trial	60 primary healthcare centers	Multifaceted intervention incorporating a dashboard component Cardiovascular disease risk management dashboard	Dashboard allowed health services to audit health records, identify performance gaps, and establish recall/reminder prompts rapidly. Dashboard used traffic light prompts to alert the practitioner to suggest recommendations.	Primary outcomes: (1) the proportion of eligible patients who received appropriate screening of CVD risk factors and (2) the proportion of eligible patients defined at baseline as being at high CVD risk receiving recommended medication prescriptions at the end of study. Secondary outcomes (1) escalation of drug prescription among patients at high CVD risk (either newly prescribed or additional numbers of antiplatelet, BP-lowering, and lipid-lowering agents).
Hemkens et al26 Switzerland	Randomized controlled trial	National-wide primary care practices	Feedback dashboard Personalized prescription feedback dashboard for physicians	Dashboard displayed of quarterly updated single-page graphical overview (bar chart) showing individual amount of antibiotic prescriptions per 100 consultations in the preceding months and the adjusted average in peer physicians across national-wide physician population.	Primary outcome: the prescribed defined daily doses (DDD) of any type of antibiotics to any patient per 100 consultations in the first and second year.
Elouafkaoui et al27 UK	Cluster Randomized Trial	795 antibiotic prescribing NHS general dental practices in Scotland	Feedback dashboard A graphical individualized audit and feedback dashboard for dentists	Dashboard displayed line graph plotting the individual dentist’s monthly antibiotic prescribing rate. Data were derived from 2 routinely collected electronic healthcare datasets held centrally by the Information Services Division of NHS National Services Scotland.	Primary outcome: the total number of antibiotic items dispensed per 100 NHS treatment claims over 12 mo. Secondary outcomes: (1) the defined daily dose (DDD) prescribing rates over 12 mo, (2) the total number of amoxicillin 3g dispensed per 100 NHS treatment claims over 12 mo, and (3) the total number of broad-spectrum antibiotics dispensed per 100 NHS treatment claims over 12 mo.