Table 3.

Examples of electrochemical sensors and biosensors applied for the detection of neurological biomarkers

Analyte	Platform	Bioelement or biomimetic element	Detection method	LOD	Linear range	Interferences	Sample type	Ref
P53 protein	AuNPs/SPCE	Antibody	LSV	0.05 nM	2–50 nM	-	Human plasma	[101]
AβO	Poly(Ni-curcumin)	-	EIS	0.001 nM	0.001–5 nM	-	Artificial CSF	[90]
	CFP/AuPt	Aptamer	DPV	0.00016 ng/mL	0.0005–10 ng/mL	HSA, NFL, tau441, Aβ42 monomer, Aβ40 monomer	Human serum	[92]
	AuNFs/GCE AuNPs/Cu-MOFs	Aptamer	DPV	0.45 nM	1–2000 nM	Aβ1–42 monomers, Aβ1–40 monomers, Aβ1–42 oligomers, Aβ1–40 oligomers, Aβ1–42 fibrils, and Aβ1–40 fibrils	Artificial CSF	[93]
	GO/AuNP hydrogel	PrPC	EIS	0.0001 nM	0.0001–10 nM	BSA, Gluc, NaCl	Artificial CSF, plasma	[89]
Tau-381	/GE	Aptamer and antibody	DPV	0.00042 nM	0.0005–0.1 nM	AA, tau-441, Gluc, L-cys	Human serum	[98]
PARK7/DJ-1	Pt/bio-PET	Antibody	EIS	7.5 ng/mL	40–150 ng/mL	-	Artificial urine artificial serum	[107]
TNF-α	GE/CMA	Antibody	CA	0.001 ng/mL	0.001–0.03 ng/mL	IL-10, cortisol	Human saliva	[75]
	CeNF/GCE/Nafion/MPA	Antibody	EIS	0.000011 ng/mL	0.000001–10,000 ng/mL	HSA, FIB, TNT, FIP, sTREM-1	Human plasma	[96]
	GE/TNF-MF/DNA-4WJ	Aptamer	CV	0.000073 ng/mL	0.00015–0.15 ng/mL	CRP, IFN, HB	Human serum	[99]
	PS/PAMAM/NFs	Antibody	EIS	0.000669 ng/mL	0.01–0.2 ng/mL	IL-10	PBS	[102]
	SPGE/AuHCF/AuNPs	Aptamer	DPV	0.0055 ng/mL	0.01–400,000 ng/mL	HSA, IgG	Human serum	[104]
IFN-γ	SPCE	Antibody	CA	0.0016 ng/mL	0.0025–2 ng/mL	AA, BSA, Gluc, HB, IgG, Il-1β, IL-6, IL-8, RANKL, UA, TGF-β1, TNF-α	Saliva	[86]
	GCE/AgNCs	Aptamer	CV	0.0017 ng/mL	0.0005–1 ng/mL	BSA, IFN-α, IFN-β, IgG, IL-6, TNF-α	Cells, human serum	[105]
	DDAHSH&AuN/SFG/GCE	Aptamer	DPSV	0.000019 ng/mL	0.0001–0.5 ng/mL	HB, L-cys, BSA, CEA, Gluc	Human serum	[94]
	AuNPs-PAMAM/MoS2/MB/GCE	Aptamer	SWV	0.000002 ng/mL	0.00001–1 ng/mL	AA, L-cys, UA, Gluc, myoglobin, BSA, Ig G, IL-22	Human serum, urine	[91]
IL-6	EC-MIS-GE/rGO/AuNPs	Antibody	CA	0.00042 ng/mL	0.00097–0.25 ng/mL	CCL-2, IL-1, TNF-α, CRP	Human serum	[30]
	ITO/AB/EpxS-PPyr	Antibody	EIS CV	0.000003 ng/mL	0.00001–0.05 ng/mL	TNF α, p53, IL-1β, IL 1α, IL-8	Human serum	[103]
	GC	Antibody	DPV	0.0051 ng/mL	0.01–0.5 ng/mL	IL-4	Serum	[95]
	SPCE/PPy	MIP	EIS	0.00002 ng/mL	0.00002–2000 ng/mL	-	Spiked human serum	[100]
IL-6 TNF-α	SAV-pHRP	Antibodies	CA	0.04 ng/mL 0.02 ng/mL	-	-	3D muscle skeletal tissue	[106]

LSV linear sweep voltammetry, AβO amyloid β oligomer, CFP/AuPt superhydrophobic carbon fiber paper with AuPt alloy nanoparticles, Aβ40, Aβ42 amyloid beta oligonucleotides, tau441 protein, NFL neurofilament protein, AuNFs Au nanoflowers, L-cys L-cysteine, PARK7/DJ-1 protein deglycase DJ-1, bio-PET bio-based poly(ethylene terephthalate), HUVEC human umbilical vein endothelial cells, CNTs carbon nanotubes, PDMS polydimethylsiloxane, NiCo2S4@CoS2 NAs@CC nickel cobalt sulfide/cobalt sulfide nanostructured arrays on carbon cloth, Raw 264.7 mammalian cells, CC/Co@C-CNTs Co nanoparticles embedded both in carbon sheets and in the tips of CNTs, CSF cerebrospinal fluid; MDA-MB-231 cells human breast cancer cell lines, E2 estradiol, EE ethynylestradiol, E3 estriol, AMX amoxicillin, LVX levofloxacin, AuPd-ANPs/GQDs/CF AuPd alloy nanoparticle–decorated graphene quantum dots on carbon fiber, Cys cysteine, CA cysteamine, Hcys homocysteine, NAC-N acetylcysteine, GSH glutathione, DTE 1,4-dithioerythritol, DHLA dihydrolipoic acid, NCNTAs nitrogen-doped carbon nanotube arrays (NCNTAs), FIB fibronectin, TNT troponin-t, FIP fipronil, sTREM-1 soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1, CYFRA-21 cytokeratin 19 fragment, HB hemoglobin, TGF-β1 transforming growth factor β1, RANKL receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand, CRP C-recative protein, CCL-2 chemokine ligand 2, CeNF cerium oxide nanofiber, MF-4WJ multifunctional DNA 4-way junction, PS polystyrene, PAMAM-NFs polyamidoamine dendritic polymer nanofibers, GSPPE graphene screen–printed paper electrode, DDAH diblock dual-aptamer allosteric hairpin, SFG graphene composite, AuHCF gold hexacyanoferrate, AB acetylene black, EpxS-Ppyr epoxy-substituted-poly(pyrrole) polymer, GC glassy carbon, SAV-pHRP streptavidin-poly horseradish peroxidase, CMA 4-carboxymethylaniline, EC-MIS electrochemical magnetoimmunosensor