Table 1.
Description of cohort by quartiles of UPF intake, NICHD Fetal Growth Studies–Singletons 2009–2013
| Periconception and 1st trimester UPF intake | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Quartile 1 | Quartile 2 | Quartile 3 | Quartile 4 | |
| Variables | (n = 400) | (n = 400) | (n = 401) | (n = 400) |
| Range (g/day) | 43.5–1,128.4 | 1,129.0–1,528.7 | 1,530.2–1,943.8 | 1,944.8–3,398.3 |
| Age, mean (SD), years | 29.36 (5.15) | 28.75 (5.56) | 27.92 (5.59) | 26.39 (5.62) |
| Race | ||||
| Non-Hispanic White | 57 (14.25) | 96 (24.00) | 102 (25.44) | 78 (19.50) |
| Non-Hispanic Black | 51 (12.75) | 84 (21.00) | 128 (31.92) | 213 (53.25) |
| Hispanic | 147 (36.75) | 141 (35.25) | 117 (29.18) | 81 (20.25) |
| Asian/Pacific Islander | 145 (36.25) | 79 (19.75) | 54 (13.47) | 28 (7.00) |
| Married or living with partner | 328 (82.21) | 310 (77.50) | 298 (74.31) | 239 (59.75) |
| Education | ||||
| <High school | 58 (14.50) | 47 (11.75) | 37 (9.23) | 40 (10) |
| High school or equivalent | 65 (16.25) | 64 (16.00) | 86 (21.45) | 97 (24.25) |
| Some college/associate | 106 (26.50) | 123 (30.75) | 125 (31.37) | 145 (36.25) |
| College undergraduate | 98 (24.50) | 91 (22.75) | 88 (21.95) | 71 (17.75) |
| Postgraduate | 73 (18.25) | 75 (18.75) | 65 (16.21) | 47 (11.75) |
| Income, thousands (U.S. $) | ||||
| <30 | 95 (30.65) | 96 (28.24) | 105 (30.35) | 148 (42.17) |
| 30–39 | 35 (11.29) | 33 (9.71) | 27 (7.80) | 25 (7.12) |
| 40–49 | 22 (7.10) | 26 (7.65) | 33 (9.54) | 31 (8.83) |
| 50–75 | 33 (10.65) | 38 (11.18) | 46 (13.29) | 54 (15.38) |
| 75–99 | 42 (13.55) | 43 (12.65) | 48 (13.87) | 41 (11.68) |
| ≥100 | 83 (26.77) | 104 (30.59) | 87 (25.14) | 52 (14.81) |
| Full-time school or work | 251 (62.75) | 272 (68.00) | 297 (74.06) | 284 (71.00) |
| Insurance (private/managed care) | 246 (63.24) | 248 (64.08) | 235 (60.26) | 196 (50.78) |
| Parity | ||||
| 0 | 174 (43.50) | 189 (47.25) | 186 (46.38) | 188 (47.00) |
| ≥1 | 226 (56.50) | 211 (52.75) | 215 (53.62) | 212 (53.00) |
| Sleep duration (h/day) | ||||
| 5–6 | 65 (16.29) | 60 (15.00) | 58 (14.50) | 62 (15.54) |
| 7 | 54 (13.53) | 57 (14.25) | 69 (17.25) | 45 (11.28) |
| 8–9 | 169 (42.36) | 198 (49.50) | 171 (42.75) | 166 (41.60) |
| ≥10 | 111 (27.82) | 85 (21.25) | 102 (25.50) | 126 (31.58) |
| Prepregnancy BMI, mean (SD), kg/m2 | 24.32 (4.45) | 25.21 (4.88) | 25.16 (5.21) | 26.57 (5.53) |
| Moderate and vigorous physical activity,* mean (SD) MET min/week | 108.39 (91.04) | 127.55 (105.57) | 132.24 (116.39) | 129.44 (113.19) |
| Dietary variables, mean (SD) | ||||
| Daily total energy, kcal/day | 1,759.3 (795.0) | 1,955.2 (824.2) | 2,280.0 (1037.3) | 2,666.7 (1197.6) |
| Carbohydrates, % energy | 54.0 (9.5) | 53.2 (9.2) | 52.8 (9.3) | 54.1 (9.6) |
| Protein, % energy | 16.7 (3.7) | 16.1 (3.2) | 15.7 (3.3) | 14.7 (3.3) |
| Fat, % energy | 31.8 (7.2) | 33.0 (7.0) | 33.4 (7.0) | 33.0 (6.9) |
| Saturated fat, % energy | 9.7 (2.6) | 10.5 (2.5) | 10.9 (2.5) | 10.9 (2.5) |
| MUFA, % energy | 12.5 (3.7) | 12.8 (3.6) | 12.8 (3.2) | 12.6 (3.0) |
| PUFA, % energy | 7.0 (2.3) | 7.0 (2.0) | 7.0 (2.0) | 7.0s (1.8) |
| HEI-2010 (max. 100 points) | 68.9 (9.3) | 66.9 (10.2) | 64.1 (10.3) | 60.4 (9.4) |
| Self-defined vegetarianism† | ||||
| Yes | 39 (10.16) | 28 (7.09) | 13 (3.29) | 14 (3.57) |
| No | 345 (89.84) | 367 (92.91) | 382 (96.71) | 378 (96.43) |
| Servings/day, mean (SD) | ||||
| Whole grain | 0.8 (0.7) | 0.9 (0.6) | 1 (0.7) | 1 (0.8) |
| Nonwhole grain | 4.2 (2.5) | 4.6 (2.8) | 5 (2.7) | 5.8 (2.9) |
| Dark green vegetable | 0.4 (0.6) | 0.3 (0.5) | 0.3 (0.4) | 0.3 (0.3) |
| Tomato | 0.4 (0.4) | 0.4 (0.4) | 0.4 (0.4) | 0.3 (0.2) |
| Orange vegetable | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.1 (0.1) |
| White potato | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.2 (0.3) | 0.3 (0.3) | 0.5 (0.4) |
| Other starchy vegetable | 0.2 (0.3) | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.2 (0.4) |
| Other vegetable | 0.8 (0.7) | 0.8 (0.6) | 0.8 (0.6) | 0.7 (0.6) |
| Citrus, melon, berry | 1.1 (1.5) | 1.2 (1.7) | 1.4 (1.9) | 1.5 (1.6) |
| Other fruit | 1.6 (1.4) | 1.6 (1.5) | 1.8 (2) | 2.1 (2.2) |
| Milk | 1 (1.2) | 1 (1.3) | 1.2 (1.5) | 1.1 (1.2) |
| Yogurt | 0.2 (0.3) | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.2 (0.3) | 0.2 (0.3) |
| Cheese | 0.4 (0.5) | 0.5 (0.5) | 0.6 (0.5) | 0.7 (0.6) |
| Meat | 1.2 (1.2) | 1.4 (1.3) | 1.7 (1.5) | 2 (1.6) |
| Organ meat | 0 (0) | 0 (0.1) | 0 (0.1) | 0 (0) |
| Cured meat | 0.2 (0.3) | 0.3 (0.5) | 0.6 (0.7) | 0.8 (0.8) |
| Poultry | 1 (1.4) | 1 (1) | 1.3 (1.4) | 1.4 (1.5) |
| Seafood high in n-3s | 0.5 (0.7) | 0.4 (0.5) | 0.4 (0.4) | 0.4 (0.4) |
| Seafood low in n-3s | 0.9 (1.1) | 0.8 (0.8) | 0.8 (0.8) | 0.8 (0.7) |
| Eggs | 0.5 (0.5) | 0.5 (0.5) | 0.6 (0.6) | 0.6 (0.5) |
| Soy products | 0.2 (0.6) | 0.1 (0.4) | 0.1 (0.2) | 0 (0.2) |
| Nuts and seeds | 0.5 (1) | 0.7 (1) | 0.7 (1) | 0.7 (1) |
| Legumes | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.1 (0.2) |
| Oil | 18.9 (13.5) | 20.9 (14) | 22.8 (15.6) | 25.4 (15.1) |
| Solid fat | 28.7 (17) | 35.1 (19.1) | 42.9 (21.9) | 52.1 (28) |
| Added sugar | 8.6 (6.5) | 12.1 (10.9) | 17.6 (19.4) | 25.9 (22.3) |
Data are presented as n (%) unless indicated otherwise. MUFA, monounsaturated fat; PUFA, polyunsaturated fat. Foods and food groups based on MyPyramid Equivalents Database serving units. Missing data: n = 35 for self-defined vegetarianism, n = 2 for physical activity, n = 254 for income, n = 1 for marriage, n = 49 for insurance, and n = 3 for sleep duration. UPFs defined using strict criterion (see Supplementary Table 1).
*
Physical activity in the past year was assessed using Pregnancy Physical Activity Questionnaire at 8–13 weeks of gestation.
†
Self-defined vegetarians answered yes to the question “For ALL of the past 3 months, have you followed a vegetarian diet?”