Table 2.
Associations of UPF intake with GWG, NICHD Fetal Growth Studies-Singletons, 2009–2013
| Strict UPF | Broad UPF | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Continuous outcomes | Observations (%) | β* (95% CI) | β* (95% CI) | |
| 2nd trimester GWG (kg/week) | Q1 | 487 (25.0) | 0.0 (Referent) | 0.0 (Referent) |
| Q2 | 487 (25.0) | −0.0025 (−0.025, 0.02) | 0.01 (−0.01, 0.04) | |
| Q3 | 487 (25.0) | 0.0002 (−0.023, 0.02) | 0.003 (−0.02, 0.03) | |
| Q4 | 487 (25.0) | 0.0024 (−0.0016, 0.049) | 0.03 (0.004, 0.05) | |
| P-trend | 0.06 | 0.05 | ||
| 3rd trimester GWG (kg/week) | Q1 | 487 (25.0) | 0.0 (Referent) | 0.0 (Referent) |
| Q2 | 487 (25.0) | −0.0029 (−0.024, 0.018) | 0.01 (−0.01, 0.03) | |
| Q3 | 487 (25.0) | 0.0008 (−0.020, 0.021) | −0.0002 (−0.02, 0.02) | |
| Q4 | 487 (25.0) | 0.0224 (−0.0005, 0.045) | 0.03 (0.004, 0.05) | |
| P-trend | 0.05 | 0.05 | ||
| Categorical outcomes | Cases/observations | OR† (95% CI) | OR† (95% CI) | |
| 2nd trimester GWG by IOM criteria | ||||
| Inadequate GWG (47.5%) | Q1 | 249/487 | 1.00 (Referent) | 1.00 (Referent) |
| Q2 | 236/487 | 0.83 (0.60, 1.17) | 0.81 (0.57, 1.13) | |
| Q3 | 227/487 | 0.73 (0.52, 1.04) | 0.71 (0.51, 0.99) | |
| Q4 | 214/487 | 0.70 (0.48, 1.02) | 0.63 (0.44, 0.91) | |
| P-trend | 0.06 | 0.01 | ||
| Excessive GWG (25.2%) | Q1 | 119/487 | 1.00 (Referent) | 1.00 (Referent) |
| Q2 | 113/487 | 0.65 (0.44, 0.98) | 0.78 (0.51, 1.17) | |
| Q3 | 115/487 | 0.60 (0.39, 0.92) | 0.60 (0.39, 0.91) | |
| Q4 | 145/487 | 0.68 (0.44, 1.05) | 0.68 (0.44, 1.07) | |
| P-trend | 0.10 | 0.07 | ||
| 3rd trimester GWG by IOM criteria | ||||
| Inadequate GWG (26.8%) | Q1 | 148/487 | 1.00 (Referent) | 1.00 (Referent) |
| Q2 | 130/487 | 0.82 (0.57, 1.17) | 0.68 (0.47, 0.98) | |
| Q3 | 134/487 | 0.92 (0.64, 1.34) | 0.94 (0.66, 1.34) | |
| Q4 | 110/487 | 0.69 (0.46, 1.04) | 0.60 (0.41, 0.89) | |
| P-trend | 0.13 | 0.05 | ||
| Excessive GWG (35.9%) | Q1 | 149/487 | 1.00 (Referent) | 1.00 (Referent) |
| Q2 | 164/487 | 0.87 (0.62, 1.23) | 0.98 (0.70, 1.38) | |
| Q3 | 175/487 | 1.01 (0.71, 1.45) | 1.00 (0.70, 1.44) | |
| Q4 | 211/487 | 1.06 (0.74, 1.53) | 1.01 (0.70, 1.45) | |
| P-trend | 0.56 | 0.93 |
Q, quartile. P-trends from linear regression of the median UPF intake in each quartile. Missing exposure, covariate, and outcome data were multiply imputed (20 iterations). Models adjusted for age (years), race/ethnicity (non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander), education (less than high school, high school, some college, bachelor’s degree, graduate degree), marital status (yes, no), nulliparity (yes, no), prepregnancy BMI (kg/m2), moderate to vigorous physical activity (MET-h/week), and sleep duration (5–6, 7, 8–9, ≥10 h/day). Items under the strict and broad criteria are in Supplementary Table 1.
β-Coefficients from linear regression.
ORs from logistic regression.