Table 2.
Descriptions and characteristics of studies included in the meta-analysis.
| ID | References | Description | N | Age M (SD) | % of women | Collective event type | CE scale |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| S1 | Alnabulsi et al., 2020 | Examination of the emotional effects of participating in the Hajj (an annual Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca). The cross-sectional study was conducted using a convenience sample. | 1,176 | – | 35.5 | Religious event | Intensity of Positive Emotional Experience |
| S2 | Bouchat et al., 2020 | Examination of short- and long-term psychosocial consequences of participation in a major scouting event in Belgium, in 2018. The study was conducted with a convenience sample using a longitudinal design. | 313 | 23.0 (7.5) | 53.7 | Community celebration | PES |
| S3 | Carlton-Ford, 1992, S1 | Study of a sample of 44 different urban communes from 7 large US cities, and their group rituals (k = 15) without the presence of a charismatic leader (e.g., group meditation, yoga, praying and singing). It used a convenience and hierarchical sample with a cross-sectional design. | 142 | – | – | Religious events | Involvement in Collective Effervescence (ICE) |
| S4 | Carlton-Ford, 1992, S2 | US urban commune rituals (see description of S5) with the presence of a charismatic leader. | 144 | – | – | Religious events | Involvement in Collective Effervescence (ICE) |
| S5 | Castro-Abril et al., 2021, S1.1 | Study exploring participation in the political demonstrations and social movements that started in Chile in October 2019. It was conducted with a convenience sample of participants using a cross-sectional design. | 186 | 34.8 (12.1) | 65.5 | Demonstration | PES |
| S6 | Castro-Abril et al., 2021, S1.2 | Exploration of Chilean social movements (see description of S7). This study used a convenience sample of spectators who followed the movements live or in a mediated fashion (e.g., online, on TV). | 65 | 38.5 (12.7) | 65.7 | Demonstration | PES |
| S7 | Corcoran, 2015 | Cross-sectional study using data (aggregated level) from the 2001 US Congregational Life Survey (USCLS), which analyzed 344 religious congregations (e.g., Pentecostal, Black Protestant and Catholic) and attendees at collective religious rituals. Hyper-network sampling was used to gather a random sample of congregations. | 46,571 | 48.5 (15.2) | – | Religious event | Perception of CE |
| S8 | Corcoran, 2020 | Cross-sectional study conducted with the 2001 US Congregational Life Survey (USCLS) (see S9). | 49,360 | 48.80 (15.35) | 60.1 | Religious event | Emotional Energy Index |
| S9 | Cusi et al., 2022 | Cross-sectional study that assesses (through recall of a past experience) participation in past collective events. Specifically, the type of event (e.g., family reunions, concerts, etc.) and the frequency of participation are evaluated. | 372 | 23.36 (6.85) | 67.2 | Other type | PES |
| S10 | Draper, 2014 | Study using data (aggregated level) from the 2001 US Congregational Life Survey (USCLS) (see S9). This study used a cross-sectional design. | 73,196 | – | 62.0 | Religious event | CE Index |
| S11 | Drengner et al., 2012 | Study exploring participation in Europe's biggest hip-hop festival in Germany. Mainly designed as a music festival, it also includes different aspects of hip-hop culture (e.g., graffiti, breakdancing) and is attended by up to 20000 visitors. The study was carried out using a cross-sectional design with a convenience sample. | 409 | 21.5 (3.1) | 33.0 | Music festival | Intensity of Positive Emotional Experience |
| S12 | Fischer et al., 2014 | Measurement of quantified physiological fluctuations (heart rates) and self-reported affective states at the Thimithi festival in a Hindi community in Mauritius. The 10-day festival ends with a procession and subsequent fire-walking ritual. The final sample included fire-walkers (of whom 13 participated in body piercing) and spectators who were evaluated pre- and post-event. | 70 | 32.6 (14.9) | 49.0 | Religious event | Involvement in the Ritual |
| S13 | Gabriel et al., 2017, S1 | Cross-sectional study using the Tendency for Effervescent Assembly Measure (TEAM scale) with an undergraduate student sample (University at Buffalo, US). | 117 | 19.0 (3.4) | 53.0 | Other type | TEAM |
| S14 | Gabriel et al., 2017, S2 | Exploration of the Tendency for Effervescent Assembly Measure (TEAM; see S16). This study included data from a second undergraduate student sample. | 163 | 18.9 (1.4) | 52.8 | Other type | TEAM |
| S15 | Gabriel et al., 2017, S3 | Evaluation of the Tendency for Effervescent Assembly Measure (TEAM; see S16). This study included data from a community sample. | 405 | 35.4 (12.4) | 43.7 | Other type | TEAM |
| S16 | Gabriel et al., 2017, S5 | Study evaluating past experiences of collective effervescence with an undergraduate student sample from the University at Buffalo (US). It explores the role of social needs fulfillment in effervescent assembly, as well as the relationship of the scale with recent collective effervescence experiences using a cross-sectional design. | 150 | 19.4 (5.3) | 52.6 | Other type | TEAM |
| S17 | Gabriel et al., 2020, S3a | In this study, recruited participants (university students from a large US city) recalled recent collective effervescence experiences in a large crowd of people. The design used was cross-sectional. | 273 | 19.0 (1.2) | 33.3 | Other type | State Collective Effervescence |
| S18 | Gabriel et al., 2020, S3b | Cross-sectional study measuring previous experiences in a big crowd during some kind of gathering. Participants were recruited through a US online site. | 239 | 51.2 (17.6) | 74.0 | Other type | State Collective Effervescence |
| S19 | Hopkins et al., 2016 | Study conducted on the Magh Mela pilgrimage (annual event that attracts millions of pilgrims to the banks of the Ganges at Prayag). Many participants (known as kalpwasis) commit to staying for a full month and to participating for 12 consecutive years, and subject themselves to a distinctive routine of religious devotion (e.g., bathing in the Ganges, praying). The study was carried out with a convenience sample of kalpwasis using a cross-sectional design. | 416 | 64.4 (9.3) | 57.0 | Religious event | Intensity of Positive Emotional Experience |
| S20 | Jiménez et al., 2005 | Longitudinal study evaluating emotional mechanisms (e.g., social sharing) in the context of demonstrations against terrorism following the 2004 Madrid train bombings (11-M). The study was carried out with a convenience sample of university students from 8 Spanish universities and their acquaintances. | 675 | 27.6 (11.7) | 71.0 | Demonstration | Intensity of Positive Emotional Experience |
| S21 | Kettner et al., 2021 | Longitudinal study evaluating perceived emotional synchrony during psychedelic rituals and prediction of fusion of identity, psychological wellbeing and social connectedness 4 weeks after. | 495 | 44.3 (12.2) | 44.0 | Other type | PES |
| S22 | Naidu et al., 2022, S2 | Recollection of past online experiences of collective effervescence. Participants were instructed on different types of experiences in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and were asked to describe one. | 353 | 19.27 (1.6) | 43.3 | Other type | Collective Effervescence Experiences |
| S23 | Neville and Reicher, 2011, S3 | Study exploring the experience of participation in the three-day Rock Ness festival (2009, UK), an event held on an annual basis (until 2013) featuring a mixture of rock and dance acts that was attended by approx. 30000 participants. The study was carried out with a convenience sample using a cross-sectional design. | 98 | 26.6 (–) | 49.0 | Music festival | Intensity of Positive Emotional Experience |
| S24 | Novelli et al., 2013, S1 | Cross-sectional exploration of the effects of participation in a free outdoor music event featuring DJ Fatboy Slim, in 2002 (Brighton, UK). It was a very crowded event (N ≈ 250,000) and respondents (convenience sample) received £5 for participating. | 48 | 35.9 (7.5) | 67.0 | Music festival | Intensity of Positive Emotional Experience |
| S25 | Páez et al., 2013 | Studying exploring demonstrations in the context of an important large-scale social protest movement in Spain during May 2011 (also known as the 15-M movement), triggered by declining economic and social conditions. The convenience sample included participants in several cities (e.g., Madrid, Barcelona) and the design used was cross-sectional. | 213 | 29.4 (11.8) | 55.6 | Demonstration | PES |
| S26 | Páez et al., 2015, S1 | Cross-sectional study evaluating participation in annual pseudo-military folkloric marches in Belgium. This ritual includes dressing up in historical military uniforms and bearing old weapons while marching in synchrony. Participants were recruited at a rehearsal meeting and were all from the same town. | 93 | 32.6 (12.9) | 19.4 | Community celebration | PES |
| S27 | Páez et al., 2015, S4.1 | Study of an experimentally-induced demonstration in which participants (university students from the UPV/EHU, Spain) were asked to create banners with antiracist slogans in support of a local NGO (SOS Racism). The data focus on the experimental condition, i.e., the collective creation of slogans, and the study used a longitudinal design. | 35 | 21.7 (4.1) | 91.4 | Demonstration | PES |
| S28 | Páez et al., 2015, S4.2 | Study of an experimentally-induced demonstration (see S30). This study includes data from participants in the control condition (i.e., individual banner creation in the presence of others) and used a longitudinal design. | 40 | 20.7 (1.2) | 82.5 | Demonstration | PES |
| S29 | Parveen and Khan, 2020 | Correlational study assessing the participation of religious devotees to a visit to Banner Sharif and Piran Kalyar mausoleums. | 100 | – | 39 | Other type | PES |
| S30 | Pelletier, 2018 | Belgian citizens were recruited through a probability sampling procedure in Bourse Square in Brussels (Belgium), during the spontaneous collective gatherings that followed the March 22 (2016) terrorist attacks. The study used a cross-sectional design. | 198 | 34.9 (15.2) | 49.5 | Demonstration | PES |
| S31 | Pizarro et al., 2017, S1.1 | Study of an experimentally-induced collective demonstration in favor of immigrants from the Maghreb (also known as Northwest Africa), supported by a local NGO (SOS Racismo). The sample comprised university students studying Social Work (UPV/EHU, Spain) divided into different conditions in accordance with the information they were given to create the banners and subsequently engage in the demonstration. This study focuses on the first experimental condition, which used exclusively human information (i.e., traits and characteristics that are uniquely human) and had a longitudinal design. | 24 | 20.0 (1.3) | 70.8 | Demonstration | PES |
| S32 | Pizarro et al., 2017, S1.2 | Study of an experimentally-induced collective demonstration (see S34). This study included participants randomized to the second experimental condition, using non-exclusively human information (i.e., traits and characteristics that are shared with other animal species) to create the banners. | 30 | 21.9 (6.7) | 80.0 | Demonstration | PES |
| S33 | Pizarro et al., 2017, S1.3 | Study of an experimentally-induced collective demonstration (see S34). This study included participants randomized to the control condition, using utilitarian information (i.e., information centered on the economic gains of receiving immigrants) to create the banners. | 29 | 20.2 (1.8) | 79.3 | Demonstration | PES |
| S34 | Pizarro et al., 2020 | Quasi-experiment centered on the effects of a mindful dancing program lasting 45 min, consisting of a guided mindfulness meditation carried out while performing a series of synchronous movements, guided by a professional. Participants were university students (UPV/EHU, Spain) and this study focuses on the intervention group, using a longitudinal design. | 67 | 20.3 (1.9) | 82.1 | Sports gathering | PES |
| S35 | Pizarro et al., 2021, S1.1 | Using a cross-sectional design, this study evaluates the effects of past participation in collective rituals and gatherings (recall approach) on global identity and prosocial intentions. This study was carried out with a convenience sample of participants from Mexico. | 373 | 23.4 (6.9) | 68.1 | Other type | PES |
| S36 | Pizarro et al., 2021, S1.2 | Study evaluating past participation in collective rituals and gatherings, with a sample of participants from Mexico and the Basque Country (Spain). | 145 | 27.9 (10.5) | 64.1 | Other type | PES |
| S37 | von Scheve et al., 2014 | Naturalistic study of participation in the 2010 Football World Cup that evaluates the effects of emotional entrainment and collective emotions. It used a longitudinal design with a convenience sample. | 98 | 28.4 (11.4) | 37.0 | Sports gathering | Experience of Emotional Entrainment |
| S38 | von Scheve et al., 2017 | This study measures the effects of participation in a mega-sporting event (the UEFA championship) in 2012 and includes participants from Germany (n = 302), the UK (n = 144) and Poland (n = 61). It used a longitudinal design with convenience samples. | 507 | 37.22 (13.89); 45.28 (15.02); 28.28 (8.37) |
55.0; 48.6; 59.0 | Sports gathering | Experience of Emotional Entrainment |
| S39 | Wlodarczyk et al., 2020, S1 | Study conducted in the context of the Tamborrada, an annual ritual held in Donostia-San Sebastián (northern Spain), which involves large groups of drummers who invade the city for a 24-hour-long celebration. The groups march and play folk songs in exact or complementary synchrony and costumes include barrel-holders, cooks, and Napoleonic-style military personnel. The study was carried out with a convenience sample using a longitudinal design. | 550 | 42.7 (13.9) | 47.8 | Community celebration | PES |
| S40 | Wlodarczyk et al., 2020, S2.1 | Study of participation in a patriotic paramilitary parade held annually in Chile (May 21 Iquique Naval Combat). Data were gathered from high-school students who participated in a synchronous march accompanied by marching bands. The study was carried out with a convenience sample using a longitudinal design. | 151 | 16.4 (16.4) | 37.7 | Demonstration | PES |
| S41 | Wlodarczyk et al., 2020, S2.2 | Study of the effect of participating in newcomer hazing rituals on the University of Louvain campus (Belgium). This tradition involves enacting costly rituals (e.g., disgusting stimuli, humiliations) with first-year students, and is frequently practiced in different sororities and fraternities, etc. The study used a longitudinal design with a convenience sample. | 120 | 19.5 (3.0) | 74.0 | Community celebration | PES |
| S42 | Wlodarczyk, Zumeta et al., 2021 | Longitudinal study comparing participants in Sunday Mass with participants in secular Sunday group activities (e.g., family lunch, sporting activities). The study was carried out with a convenience sample. | 110 | 53.9 (18.2) | 61.8 | Religious event | PES |
| S43 | Xygalatas et al., 2013 | Cross-sectional study of the effects of two rituals which form part of Thaipusam, an important religious Hindu festival in Mauritius. One of the rituals consisted of singing and collective prayer, and the other of body piercing and other painful actions. All participants took part in both rituals and were randomized to be tested in only one. | 86 | 32.6 (14.9) | 49.0 | Religious event | Involvement in the Ritual |
| S44 | Zlobina and Celeste, 2022, S1 | Correlational study studying participation in applause rituals (i.e., collective displays of gratitude directed at healthcare personnel working in the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain) during confinement. | 528 | 42.85 (14.55) | 69 | Demonstration | PES |
| S45 | Zlobina and Celeste, 2022, S2 | Correlational study of the participation in an applause ritual (see S53). | 292 | 21.13 (2.45) | 78 | Demonstration | PES |
| S46 | Zumeta et al., 2016 | Study evaluating the effects of engaging in different collectively-performed physical and sporting activities (e.g., football, volleyball, aerobics, dancing, hiking, etc.). It used a recall of event approach with a convenience sample and a cross-sectional design. | 276 | 21.6 (4.1) | 72.0 | Sports gathering | PES |
| S47 | Zumeta et al., 2020 | Cross-sectional study in the context of marches for women's rights in 9 countries. The demonstrations were mass gatherings during the 8th of March, 2019 and the participants were recruited through convenience samples. | 2,843 | 30.55 (11.66) | 83.8 | Demonstration | PES |
| S48 | Zumeta et al., 2020, S1 | Study exploring the effects of participating in Bizilagunak, an intercultural family lunch promoted by a local NGO (SOS Racism). The event consisted of more than 200 meals occurring simultaneously, in which participants were divided into hosts and attendees with the intention of promoting interaction between Basque natives and immigrants. The study used a longitudinal approach and a convenience sample. | 196 | 38.1 (13.1) | 75.5 | Community celebration | PES |
| S49 | Zumeta et al., 2020, S2 | Study of a communal celebration entitled Rices of the World, consisting of a community lunch held in a public area using rice as the common thread linking different cultures. The study was carried out with a convenience sample and used a cross-sectional design. | 107 | 37.8 (12.7) | 50.5 | Community celebration | PES |
| S50 | Zumeta et al., 2020, S3 | Cross-sectional study on the 16th and 17th demonstrations against racism and xenophobia, held in Donostia-San Sebastián (Spain). These marches are held annually and are attended by between 600 and 700 people. The study was carried out using a convenience sample. | 91 | 45.8 (11.5) | 52.7 | Demonstration | PES |
ref. indicates the study reference. M(SD) indicates the mean and standard deviation, respectively. An uppercase “S” followed by a number indicates the study as it is presented in the corresponding article. Dashes (–) indicate that the information is not reported. CE, Collective Effervescence; PES, Perceived Emotional Synchrony; TEAM, Tendency for Effervescent Assembly Measure.