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. 2022 Sep 2;10:971739. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.971739

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Copyright © 2022 Kwon, Jo, Song, Lee, Jeon, Park, Kim, Baek, Kim, Kwon, Kim, Yang and Kim.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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(A) Mechanism of the ubiquitin proteasome pathway (UPP) involved in proteolysis. Ubiquitin is conjugated to a protein substrate by three enzymes: E1, E2, and E3 ligases (Kocaturk and Gozuacik, 2018). This process is repeated until a chain of ubiquitin is formed. The ubiquitin chain is recognized by the 26S proteasome, and after the ubiquitin is removed, the protein substrate is digested to peptides. (B) Table of proteins belonging to the UPP of Caco-2 cells cultured with C. difficile. (C) Comparison of the production of AMP and ATP in Caco-2 cells cultured with C. difficile. The error bars represent the standard deviation. Metabolomic analysis was performed in quadruplicate. Proteomic analysis was performed in triplicate. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.