Fig 3. TUS effect on fixational information sampling and behavioral adjustment after gains and losses.

(A,B) Information sampling (the duration of fixating objects prior to choosing an object) is increased with TUS in ACC in gain-loss (A) but not gain-only (B) learning context. (C, D) TUS in ACC reduced post-learning plateau accuracy in gain-loss contexts (C) but not in gain-only contexts (D) (LMEs, p = 0.04) (see S2 Table). With FDR correction, this accuracy effect was significant at the session level, but not at the block level, indicating a low effect size (S10E Fig and S1 Table). (E) The accuracy was overall reduced with TUS in ACC in the 5 trials after experiencing a token loss in the gain-loss context (random permutation, p < 0.05). (F) GTI (x-axis) measures the signed average of tokens gained and lost in the preceding trials. TUS in ACC reduced the performance accuracy (y-axis) when monkeys had lost more tokens in the near past (negative GTI) (random permutation, p < 0.05). Data indicate the mean and the standard error of the mean. Accuracy on the trial level is normalized by the mean and standard deviation of the accuracy in the baseline (the first 6 blocks prior to the TUS) in the same TUS sessions. Black asterisks show significant main effect of TUS conditions and a significant difference between the TUS and the baseline (pre-TUS) conditions (for the TUS condition underneath the asterisks). Horizontal black lines indicate significant pairwise difference between TUS conditions. Data associated with this plot could be found at: https://figshare.com/projects/TUS_PlosBiology/144330. ACC, anterior cingulate cortex; GTI, gross token income; LME, linear mixed effect; TUS, transcranial ultrasound stimulation.