Table 1.

Comparison of Engagement to Other Related Constructs

Construct	Definition	Distinctions from Engagement	Examples focusing on a particular task: self-monitoring dietary intake via a mobile app
Engagement	A state of energy investment involving physical, affective, and cognitive energies directed toward a focal stimulus or task	N/A	An individual uses the app to self-monitor their dietary intake while making an effort to accurately record the information and appreciating the opportunity to self-reflect.
Adherence	The extent to which an individual follows the intended suggestions to complete a focal task (e.g., Bissonnette, 2008)	A person may engage in a task without following instructions.	A patient follows their doctor’s instructions to self-monitor dietary intake twice per day via a mobile app for 2 weeks.
Involvement	“Cognitive or belief state of psychological identification” (Kanungo, 1982, p. 342)	(a) Engagement with a task does not require psychological identification with the task; (b) involvement is mainly a cognitive state (rather than a state of energy investment).	An individual considers self-monitoring dietary intake via the mobile app as very central to their health and well-being.
Participation	The investment of physical energy in an activity (Davis et al., 2007)	Participation does not necessarily include the investment of affective or cognitive energies.	An individual uses a mobile app to self-monitor dietary intake.
Commitment	A long-term orientation toward a course of action, including feelings of psychological attachment and intentions to persist (e.g., Meyer & Allen, 1997)	(a) Engagement in a task may not require a long-term orientation or intentions to persist; (b) Commitment primarily describes emotional attachment or intentions rather than actual investment of energies.	An individual intends to continue using a mobile app to self-monitor dietary intake in the long-term.
Motivation	An affective drive for action that leads one to approach reward or avoid punishment (Kahn, 1990)	Captures an individual’s drive (the reason for engagement) rather than the investment of energy.	An individual experiences an internal drive to self-monitor dietary intake via the app because they appreciate the benefits of doing so.
Flow	A high degree of concentration and interest in an activity (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi, 2020)	Represents a unique ‘peak’ in cognitive absorption.	An individual is highly concentrated on self-monitoring dietary intake via the mobile app.
Persistence	Continued adherence (e.g., Clowes et al., 2004) or continued investment of effort in a task despite obstacles or difficulty (e.g., Howard & Crayne, 2019)	Persistence primarily describes continued investment of cognitive or physical (rather than affective) energies in a task.	An individual makes continued attempts to self-monitor dietary intake via the mobile app.