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. 2022 Sep 17;15:135. doi: 10.1186/s13045-022-01349-6

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 2 — Canonical and non-canonical TGF-β signaling pathway. LLC are produced by various cell types, and TGF-β ligands can be activated and release from the LLC. TGF-β signaling initiates when the TGF-β ligands (TGF-β1,2,3) bind to TGF-βRII. Then, TGF-βRI is phosphorylated and activates various intracellular signaling cascades. These intracellular pathways of canonical SMAD2/3 pathway and non-canonical TGF-β pathways including MAP kinases (p38), Hippo, PI3K/AKT, and AMPK signaling can subsequently regulate metabolic activities. LLC: large latent complex