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. 2022 Sep 17;15:135. doi: 10.1186/s13045-022-01349-6

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 6 — TGF-β-mediated host metabolism reprogramming in cancer. A Cancer is like a malignant organ that produces a large amount of TGF-β cytokine, then it circulates all over the host body including the liver, pancreas, and skeletal muscle. B In this way, TGF-β ligand resembles an endocrine factor and leads to hyperglycemia through 1. inducing β-cell apoptosis (verified) and 2. hepatic gluconeogenesis (hypothesized). 3. Cachexia is induced by TGF-β signaling by skeletal muscle proteolysis (verified). Pharmacologically or genetically inhibiting TGF-β signaling can attenuate these processes and reverse hyperglycemia and cachexia.