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. 2022 Sep 19;20:145. doi: 10.1186/s12964-022-00959-4

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 2 — Clinical application of exosomes. In clinical trials, exosomes are being used as biomarkers, cell-free therapy (exosome-therapy), drug delivery system, and cancer vaccine. Exosomes from plant cells, mesenchymal cells, T cells, and dendritic cells are used for the treatment of different diseases. In addition, exosomes from these sources are promising carriers for drug delivery systems. In the direct method, exosomes are loaded with therapeutic agents, while through indirect methods, proper cells are genetically engineered or co-cultured with therapeutic agents to produce artificial exosomes