Table 1.
Overview of the contexts (which may be related to functions) and benefits of interspecific associations among monkeys
| Context/Function | Benefit | Reference | |
|---|---|---|---|
| New World Monkeys | |||
| Golden-headed lion tamarin (Leontophithecus chrysomelas); Wied’s marmoset (Callithrix kuhlii) | F, A | Both | Oliveira and Dietz, 2011; Rocha et al., 2015 |
| Squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus); Tufted capuchin (Cebus apella); Bearded saki (Chiropotes satanas, C. utahickae); Howler monkey (Alouatta belzubul); Tamarin (Sanguinus niger); Owl monkey (Aotus azarae); Titi monkey (Callicebus moloch) | F | All | Pinheiro et al., 2011 |
| Golden-headed lion tamarin (Leontophithecus chrysomelas); Wied’s marmoset (Callithrix kuhlii) | F, A | Both | Oliveira and Dietz, 2011; Rocha et al., 2015 |
| Squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus); Tufted capuchin (Cebus apella); Bearded saki (Chiropotes satanas, C. utahickae); Howler monkey (Alouatta belzubul); Tamarin (Sanguinus niger); Owl monkey (Aotus azarae); Titi monkey (Callicebus moloch) | F | All | Pinheiro et al., 2011 |
| Squirrel monkey (Saimiri oerstedii); White-faced capuchin (Cebus capucinus) | A | Cebus only∗ | Boinski, 1989 |
| Callitrichines review (various: Sanguinus fuscicollis avilapiresi; S. f. fuscicollis; S. f. nigrifrons; S. f. weddelli; S. f. melanoleucus; S. mystax; S. m. pileatus; S. m. mystax; S. imperator subgrisescens; S. labiatus; Callithrix emiliae; C. goeldii) | F, A | All∗ | Heymann and Buchanan-Smith, 2000 |
| Old World Monkeys | |||
| Diana monkey (Cercocebus aethiops sabaeus); Olive colobus (Procolobus verus) | (A) | Both | Whitesides, 1989 |
| Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana); Campbell’s monkey (Cercopithecus campbelli) | F, A, S | Both | Wolters and Zuberbühler, 2003 |
| Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana); Red colobus (Piliocolobus badius) | A | Both | Holenweg et al., 1996; Bshary and Noe, 1997 |
| Grey-cheeked mangabey (Lophocebus albigena); Blue monkey (Ceropithecus mitis); Redtailed monkey (Ceropithecus ascanius); Black-and-white colobus (Colobus guereza); Red colobus (Piliocolobus badius) | (F, A) | All | Chapman and Chapman, 1996 |
| Grey-cheeked mangabey (Lophocebus albigena); Redtailed monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius) | (F, A) | Both | Waser, 1982 |
| Grey-cheeked mangabey (Lophocebus albigena); Redtailed monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius) | (A) | Both | Bryer et al., 2013 |
| Redtailed monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius); Blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis) | F, A | Both∗ | Cords, 1990 |
“Context/Potential Function”: F = foraging efficiency, A = anti-predation, S = social advantages (if listed within parentheses, context-dependent functional advantages were reported). “Benefit” defines which species (or all) were reported to benefit from the mixed species associations. Other species may have been studied in these listed investigations (e.g., Waser, 1982; Whitesides, 1989); however, only species discussed with possible functional advantages to mixed species associations are listed here. ∗Note: Heymann and Buchanan-Smith (2000) review the literature on polyspecific callitrichine troops, reporting very low costs to mix-species association of this taxa; Boinksi (1989) reports C. capucinus to be the primary benefactor (anti-predation) of their sustained association with S. oerstedii who may experience a plausible reduction of foraging efficiency; Cords (1990) reports that C. mitis appear to be the primary benefactors in some instances while both species experience only minor costs due to mixed-species associations.