TABLE 1.

Proposed classification of dysfunctional breathing patterns, with associated lung diseases and key references

Breathing pattern	Number of papers	Key references	Linked conditions
Hyperventilation syndrome	43	[1, 2, 5, 15]	Asthma Panic disorder
Periodic deep sighing	12	[8, 9, 45–47]	Asthma Panic disorder
Thoracic dominant breathing	4	[11, 47–49]	Asthma COPD Heart failure Panic disorder
Forced abdominal expiration	2	[50, 51]	COPD
Thoraco-abdominal asynchrony	6	[52–54]	Obstruction Neuromuscular disease Respiratory failure

COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.