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. 2020 Dec 31;5:100077. doi: 10.1016/j.ese.2020.100077

Table 1.

Sources, extracted methods, properties and applications of nanocellulose.

Sources Extraction methods Properties Applications References
Forest residues Eucalyptus sawdust TEMPO oxidation Surface area: 60 m2 g−1;
Average diameter: 41.0 nm.		 Papermaking [30]
Birch and Spruce sawdust Sodium hydroxide and Soxhlet extraction followed by acetic acid, sodium acetate and sodium chlorite treatment. Tensile strength:80–200 MPa;
Young’s modulus: 4.8–8.5 GPa.		 Papermaking [8]
Medium density fiberboard Soxhlet extraction, sodium hydroxide and repeated bleaching. Length: 164.7 nm;
Width: 6.7 nm;
Crystallinity: 71%.		 Nanocomposites or papermaking [38]
Beech wastes pulp Fibrilization Diameters: 20–65 nm.
Average: 35 nm		 Adhesive [33]
Cordia goeldiana veneer wastes Alkali treatment, bleaching, homogenization and casting. Maximum processing temperatures: 300 °C. E-papers, organic electronic devices and transparent solar cells [35]
Pinecone biomass Acidification, alkali treatment, mechanical grinding. Tensile strength: 273 MPa;
Elastic modulus: 17 GPa;
Crystallinity: 70%;
Diameter: 5–20 nm.		 Bionanocomposites [36]
Logging residues Alkaline treatment, bleaching treatment and acid hydrolysis. High aspect ratio:>10;
Good thermal stability.		 Reinforcing agents [31]
Pine needles Chemical pretreatments followed by ultrasonic treatments Narrow diameter: 30–70 nm;
Cellulose I type; Crystallinity: 66.19%;
Highly flexible, highly ultralight and good thermal properties.		 Thermoplastic composites [37]
Bamboo log chips Glycerol pretreatment, extrusion treatment and mechanical refining using 0.15% sulfuric acid (conc.) as a catalyst. Diameter: 20–80 nm; Crystallinity: 52.7%. / [39]
Agricultural residues Raw rice husk Chemical pretreatment, homogenization and high-intensity ultrasonication processes (500 W,40min). Diameters: 6–20 nm;
High aspect ratio (177); Crystallinity: 65%;
Good thermal stability.		 Green nanocomposites, filtration media, tissue, engineering. [15]
Waste sugarcane bagasse Alkali hydrolysis; bleaching treatment; acid hydrolysis and ultrasonic treatment. Cellulose II;
Diameters:18.17–32.84 nm;
Crystallinity: 93%.		 Food packaging [77]
Corn cobs One-step mechanochemical esterification Diameter: 1.5–2.8 nm;
Transparency:89% (550 nm);
Young’s modulus: 5.5 GPa;
Tensile strength: 110–125 MPa.		 Advanced materials in electronics and other application [49]
Jute dried stalks Alkali treatment followed by steam explosion; sodium chlorite bleaching and oxalic acid treatment followed by steam explosion. Average diameter: 50 nm;
Higher crystallinity;
Young’s modulus: 138 GPa;
Good reinforcing properties.		 Reinforcing agent [78]
Wheat straw Bleaching treatment, pressure sieve and high-pressure homogenization; Good adsorption capacity Nanosorbent [47]
Coconut husk Ultrasonic-assisted solvent immersion, alkaline treatment, bleaching treatment, milder TEMPO -mediated oxidation (TEMPO/NaClO/NaClO2, pH = 4.8) Average diameter: 5.6 ± 1.5 nm;
Length: 150–350 nm; Good mechanical properties and thermal stability.		 PVA composite strength enhancer [51]
Kenaf bast fiber Alkali pulping process; bleaching process and mechanical treatment. Diameter: 1.2–34 nm;
Crystallinity: 82.52%;
Yield: 60.25%.		 Reinforcement material [79]
Citrus waste Bleaching treatment, acid hydrolysis and ultrasonic assisted treatment. Higher crystallinity;
Average diameter: 9.7 nm.		 Manufacturing necessities industry [80]
Branch-barks of mulberry Alkali treatment, bleaching treatment, acid hydrolysis and ultrasonic treatment. Diameter: 25–30 nm;
Length: 400–500 nm;
Crystallinity: 73.4%.		 / [81]
Pea hull Acid hydrolysis Length: 400-240 nm;
Diameter: 7–12 nm;
Good UV absorption, transparency, tensile strength, elongation at break and water resistance.		 Nanocomposites [45]
Pineapple leaves Steam explosion and acid hydrolysis Diameter: 5–40 nm;
Large surface area and specific properties of nanotechnology.		 Polymer reinforcing agent [48]
Raw apple stem Acid hydrolysis Yield: 5.2%;
Higher crystallinity;
Good thermal stability.		 / [46]
Algae waste Cladophorales Acid hydrolysis Width: 20–30 nm;
Crystallinity: 100%;
High specific surface area and rheological properties.		 Biological field [18,61]
Red algae Acid hydrolysis Length: 432 nm;
Good thermal degradation resistance.		 / [64]
Industrial kelp (Laminaria japonica) waste Acid hydrolysis Yield: 52.3%;
Crystalline form: cellulose I;
Crystallinity: 69.4%;
Shape: rod-like;
Poor thermostability.		 / [60]
Ulva lactuca Methanol decolorization, bleaching and acid hydrolysis. Good absorption Adsorbents [62]
Dealginate kelp residue 2 wt% Na2CO3 swelling treatment, 2 wt% NaOH extraction of residual sodium alginate, ultrasonic smashing, 0.7 wt% NaClO2 buffer solution bleaching treatment, delignification and sulfuric acid hydrolysis. High aspect ratio: 30–70;
Crystallinity: 74.55%.		 / [65]
Cystoseria myricaas algae Soxhlet pretreatment, 3% NaOH treatment, NaClO2 bleaching treatment and acid hydrolysis. Average crystallite’s grain size (Fe3O4-Nanocellulose): 21 nm. Heavy metal mercury adsorbent [82]
Gelidium elegansred Alkali treatment, bleaching treatment and acid hydrolysis. Average diameter: 21.8 ± 11.1 nm;
Length: 547.3 ± 23.7 nm;
Good thermal stability.		 Nanocomposites [83]
Gelidium sesquipedale Soxhlet extraction, bleaching treatment, 5% KOH solution treatment and acid hydrolysis. Crystallinity: 69.8%;
Diameter: 6–40 nm;
Length: 80–450 nm;
High aspect ratio: 40.		 Food packaging industry [84]
Chaetomorpha antennina Bleaching treatment, acid hydrolysis, and ultrasonic assisted treatment. Yield: 34 ± 0.9%;
Crystallinity:85.02%;
Good thermal stability and tensile strength.		 Environmentally friendly products [63]
Industrial by-product Sweet lime pulp waste Komagataeibacter europaeus SGP37 incubation under static intermittent fed-batch cultivation Yield: 27.0–38 g/L. Bacterial nanocellulose [74]
Waste paper Aqueous NaOH/thiourea Crystallinity: 48.85%;
Average size: 50 nm;
Good thermal stability.		 Transistors and batteries [71]
Cotton linter waste Acid hydrolysis Length: 177 nm;
Width: 12 nm;
Crystallinity: 90.45%;
High hydrophilicity.		 Hydrophilic nanocomposites [85]
Discarded cigarette filters Ethanol extraction, bleaching, alkali treatment and acid hydrolysis Length: 143 nm;
Width: 8 nm;
Crystallinity: 96.77%.		 Biomedical composites [75]
Beer industrial residuals Acid hydrolysis and ultrasound assisted techniques. Average diameter: 73–145 nm;
Crystallinity:79%–89%;
Yield: 25.8%;
Good thermal stability.		 Packaging, coatings, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and defense [69]
Cassava peel Alkali treatment followed by bleaching process. Yield: 17.8%;
Crystallinity: 51.2%;
Length: 100–300 nm;
Width: 3–8 nm.		 / [86]
Pulp and paper mills Ammonium persulphate Length:150–500 nm;
Width:10–20 nm.		 Antimicrobial, photocatalytic, textile finishing and water treatment. [72]
Wood furniture industry waste (Pinus elliotii) Steam explosion and acid hydrolysis process Diameter: 18.0–40.5 nm. Oil absorption [70]
Olive industry solid waste Pulping, bleaching and sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Free-flowing porous Wastewater treatment [73]
Lime residues Autoclaving, high-shear and high-pressure homogenization Diameter: 5–28 nm;
Crystallinity: 44–46%;
High aspect ratio;
Good water redispersibility.		 Packaging film [76]
Recycled Tetra Pak Food Packaging Wastes Alkaline purification, bleaching treatment and acid hydrolysis. Length: 258 ± 54 nm;
Aspect ratios: >10.		 Bionanocomposites. [14]
Citrus Pulp of Floater (CPF) Enzymatic hydrolysis Crystallinity: 60%;
Purity: 98%.		 / [87]