TABLE 1.

Differences in the epidemiology, outcomes and treatment of chronic lung diseases

Disease	Epidemiology	Phenotype/prognosis	Treatment
Asthma	Childhood boys >girls Adulthood females >males Severe asthma females >males	Females have more non-allergic asthma Higher frequency of hospitalisation in females Worse quality of life in females	Females may have more Th2 low disease
Bronchiectasis	∼70% female globally	Males have worse lung function and more severe disease Worse symptoms, increased cough in females High frequency of P. aeruginosa and NTM in females	No sex-related differences Increased awareness of NTM in females
COPD	Classically male disease but prevalence increasing in females Diagnostic bias in favour of males	Females have more small airways disease, less emphysema, worse quality of life, more anxiety and depression and more rapid lung function decline	No sex-related differences in treatment
CF	Equal disease prevalence (genetic) Diagnostic bias in favour of males	Decreased survival in females Greater rate of pulmonary exacerbations (post-puberty) Earlier acquisition of P. aeruginosa in females (and greater lung function decline) Worse quality of life, greater depression in females	Discouragement of treatment, acceptance of being underweight in young females
IPF	Greater prevalence in males	Improved post-transplant outcomes, survival in females Greater symptom burden and worse health-related quality of life in females	No data
PAH	Greater prevalence in females	Decreased survival in males (“oestrogen paradox”)	Sex-related differences in response to commonly used therapies
SBD	Greater prevalence in males; middle-aged men thought to be most vulnerable Diagnostic bias in favour of males	Differing symptoms between males and females Greater severity in males Susceptibility may increase in females with obesity, pregnancy, menopause; maternal SBD may impact neonatal outcomes	No data

COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CF: cystic fibrosis; IPF: interstitial pulmonary fibrosis; NTM: non-tuberculous mycobacteria; P. aeruginosa: Pseudomonas aeruginosa; PAH: pulmonary arterial hypertension; SBD: sleep-related breathing disorders.