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Schematic representation of the current evidence for the association of cadmium exposure with smoking-related lung disease including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). FEV1: forced expiratory volume in 1 s; FVC: forced vital capacity; GOLD: Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease; BAL: bronchoalveolar lavage; GSSG: glutathione disulphide; GSH: glutathione; NF-κB: nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; ROS: reactive oxygen species.
