TABLE 1.
Roles and biological effects of inadequacy of nutrients during pregnancy
| Nutrient | Role1 | Biological effects of inadequacy |
|---|---|---|
| Micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) | ||
| Calcium | Critical for bone/skeletal development, supports muscle function, nerve impulse transmission, and hormone secretion | Potentially low fetal bone mineralization, osteopenia and pre-eclampsia/hypertension in pregnancy, muscle cramps |
| Folate | Supports neural tube formation and cognitive function, involved in protein and DNA synthesis, supports erythropoiesis | Neural tube defects, anemia in pregnancy, congenital malformations low birth weight |
| Iodine | Supports fetal and maternal thyroid function, fetal brain development; regulates growth, development, and metabolism | Neurodevelopmental delay/mental impairment |
| Iron | Critical for hemoglobin synthesis and cellular and organ function | Abnormal cognitive development and function, low birth weight/small for gestational age, birth defects, preterm delivery, anemia in pregnancy |
| Vitamin A | Supports visual development, growth, immunity, and organ development | Visual impairment, birth defects, intrauterine growth restriction, maternal night blindness |
| Vitamin B-6 | Regulates DNA methylation, energy generation, and blood cell formation, supports enzyme function | Anemia in pregnancy, birth defects |
| Vitamin B-12 | Plays a role in methylation of DNA, proteins, and neurotransmitters, supports erythropoiesis and brain development | Birth defects, low birth weight, neuropsychiatric problems |
| Vitamin C | Enhances iron uptake, supports bone and teeth health, serves as an antioxidant, and supports collagen synthesis | Negative fetal brain effects |
| Vitamin D | Critical for bone growth, supports immune and nervous system function, gene expression, and glucose metabolism | Rickets and bone fractures, risk of small for gestational age, gestational diabetes mellitus |
| Vitamin E | Protects against oxidative stress | Poor fetal and maternal outcomes |
| Vitamin K | Aids in blood clotting | Hemorrhaging/excessive bleeding |
| Thiamin | Supports muscle function and nervous system, blood cell formation | Impaired fetal brain development |
| Riboflavin | Energy generation, blood cell formation | Pre-eclampsia, risk of congenital heart defects |
| Macronutrients | ||
| Carbohydrate | Supports fetal growth, promotes healthy digestion, organ and muscle function | Restricted fetal growth |
| Fat2 | Fetal neurological development, cell signaling, growth | Inadequate fetal brain and eye development |
| Protein | Building blocks for cell components | Restricted fetal growth |
| Total water | Supports amniotic fluid and blood circulation, helps with increased maternal blood volume | Low amniotic fluid, potential birth defects |