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Nine resistance mechanisms of bacteria to antibiotics: (a) Target modification or mutation; (b) Permeability reduction; (c) Efflux pumps; (d) Hydrolase or inactivating enzyme; (e) Metabolic enhancement or auxotrophy; (f) Target protective protein; (g) Initiation of self-repair systems; (h) Changes of cell morphology; (i) Community cooperative resistance. The red triangle indicates antibiotics, and the resistance mechanisms of each figure are described in detail in the main text.
