Table 2.
Classifications and characteristics of food-borne carcinogens.
| Chemical Name | CAS Registry Number | Classification | Carcinogenic Potency (TD50, mg/kg/d) c |
MoA | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IARC a | NTP b | ||||
| 1. Human carcinogens | |||||
| Aflatoxins | 1 | 1 | 0.343 (mouse) 0.0032 (rat) |
GTX | |
| Aristolochic acid I | 313-67-7 | 1 | 1 | N/A | GTX |
| Benzene | 71-43-2 | 1 | 1 | 77.5 (mouse) 169 (rat) |
GTX |
| Benzo[a]pyrene | 50-32-8 | 1 | 2 | 3.47 (mouse) 0.956 (rat) |
GTX |
| Dioxin (TCDD) | 1746-01-6 | 1 | 1 | 0.000156 (mouse) 0.0000235 (rat) |
EPI |
| Dioxin-like compounds (PBCs) | 1 | N/L | N/A | EPI | |
| Ethylene oxide | 75-21-8 | 1 | 1 | 63.7 (mouse) 21.3 (rat) |
GTX |
| Methoxsalen with UV A radiation | 298-81-7 | 1 | 1 | 32.4 (rat) | GTX |
| Processed meat | 1 | N/L | N/A | GTX | |
| Salted fish | 1 | N/L | N/A | GTX | |
| 2. Likely to be human carcinogens | |||||
| Acrylamide | 79-06-1 | 2A | 2 | 3.75 (rat) | GTX |
| 2-Amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline | 76180-96-6 | 2A | 2 | 19.6 (mouse) 0.812 (rat) |
GTX |
| p,p′-Dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) | 50-29-3 | 2A | 2 | 12.8 (mouse) 84.7 (rat) |
EPI |
| Ethyl carbamate (urethane) | 51-79-6 | 2A | 2 | 16.9 (mouse) 41.3 (rat) |
GTX |
| 5-Methoxypsoralen | 484-20-8 | 2A | N/L | N/A | GTX |
| N-nitrosodiethylamine | 55-18-5 | 2A | 2 | 0.0265 (rat) | GTX |
| Red meat | 2A | N/L | N/A | GTX | |
| 2-Amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline | 77094-11-2 | 2B | 2 | 15.5 (mouse) | GTX |
| 2-Amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline | 77500-04-0 | 2B | 2 | 24.3 (mouse) 1.66 (rat) |
GTX |
| 2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine | 105650-23-5 | 2B | 2 | 33.2 (mouse) 1.78 (rat) |
GTX |
| Benzophenone | 119-61-9 | 2B | N/L | 152 (rat) 379 (mouse) |
EPI |
| Bracken fern | 2B | N/L | N/A | GTX | |
| Butylated hydroxyanisole | 25013-16-5 | 2B | 2 | 5530 (mouse) 405 (rat) |
EPI |
| 3-Chloro-1,2-propanediol | 96-24-2 | 2B | N/L | 117 (rat) | Uncertain |
| Crotonaldehyde | 4170-30-3 | 2B | N/L | 4.2 (rat) | GTX |
| Cycasin | 14901-08-7 | 2B | N/L | N/A | GTX |
| 1,3-Dichloro-2-propanol | 96-23-1 | 2B | N/L | 46.4 (rat) | GTX |
| Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate | 117-81-7 | 2B | 2 | 476 (rat) 484 (mouse) |
EPI |
| 1,4-Dioxane | 123-91-1 | 2B | 2 | 204 (mouse) 267 (rat) |
Uncertain/EPI |
| Fumonisin B1 | 116355-83-0 | 2B | N/L | 6.79 (mouse) 5.75 (rat) |
Uncertain/EPI |
| Fusarin C | 79748-81-5 | 2B | N/L | N/A | Uncertain/EPI |
| Furan | 110-00-9 | 2B | 2 | 2.72 (mouse) 0.396 (rat) |
EPI |
| Lasiocarpine | 303-34-4 | 2B | N/L | 0.389 (rat) | GTX |
| Methyl eugenol | 93-15-2 | 2B | 2 | 19.3 (mouse) 19.7 (rat) |
GTX |
| Methylazoxymethanol | 592-62-1 | 2B | N/L | N/A | GTX |
| 2-Methylimidazole | 693-98-1 | 2B | N/L | 782 (mouse) 868 (rat) |
EPI |
| 4-Methylimidazole | 822-36-6 | 2B | N/L | 387 (mouse) 317 (rat) |
EPI |
| Methyl isobutyl ketone | 108-10-1 | 2B | N/L | 612 (rat) | EPI |
| Monocrotaline | 315-22-0 | 2B | N/L | 0.94 (rat) | GTX |
| β-Myrcene | 123-35-3 | 2B | N/L | 15,400 (rat) | EPI |
| N-nitrosodiethanolamine | 1116-54-7 | 2B | 2 | 3.17 (rat) | GTX |
| Ochratoxin A | 303-47-9 | 2B | 2 | 6.41 (mouse) 0.136 (rat) |
GTX/EPI |
| Pickled vegetables | 2B | N/L | N/A | GTX | |
| Pulegone | 89-82-7 | 2B | N/L | 232 (mouse) 156 (rat) |
EPI |
| Riddelliine | 23246-96-0 | 2B | 2 | 1.97 (mouse) 0.119 (rat) |
GTX |
| Safrole | 94-59-7 | 2B | 2 | 51.3 (mouse) 441 (rat) |
GTX |
| trans,trans-2,4-Hexadienal | 142-83-6 | 2B | N/L | 176 (mouse) 62.2 (rat) |
GTX |
| 3. Unknown carcinogenic potential | |||||
| Agaritine d | 2757-90-6 | 3 | N/L | N/A | GTX |
| Butylated hydroxytoluene | 128-37-0 | 3 | N/L | 653 (mouse) | EPI |
| Carrageenan (native) d | 9000-07-1 | 3 | N/L | N/A | |
| Chlorate (sodium salt) d | 7775-09-9 | 3 | N/L | 69.1 (mouse) 0.865 (rat) |
EPI |
| Eugenol d | 97-53-0 | 3 | N/L | N/A | |
| Furfural d | 98-01-1 | 3 | N/L | 197 (mouse) 683 (rat) |
Uncertain |
| Hydroquinone | 123-31-9 | 3 | N/L | 225 (mouse) 82.8 (rat) |
EPI |
| Isatidine d | 15503-86-3 | 3 | N/L | 0.716 (rat) | GTX |
| d-Limonene d | 5989-27-5 | 3 | N/L | 204 (rat) | EPI |
| Malondialdehyde | 24382-04-5 | 3 | N/L | 14.1 (mouse) 122 (rat) |
GTX |
| Patulin d | 149-29-1 | 3 | N/L | N/A | Uncertain |
| Ptaquiloside | 87625-62-5 | 3 | N/L | N/A | GTX |
| Quercetin d | 117-39-5 | 3 | N/L | 10.1 (rat) | EPI |
| Retrorsine d | 480-54-6 | 3 | N/L | 0.862 (rat) | GTX |
| Senkirkine d | 2318-18-5 | 3 | N/L | 1.7 (rat) | GTX |
| Sodium saccharin d | 128-44-9 | 3 | N/L | 2140 (rat) | EPI |
| Symphytine d | 22571-95-5 | 3 | N/L | 1.91 | GTX |
| Zearalenone d | 17924-92-4 | 3 | N/L | 39 (mouse) | EPI |
| 4. Not classified by IARC/NTP | |||||
| Daminozide d | 1596-84-5 | N/L | N/L | 1030 (mouse) 2500 (rat) |
EPI |
| Estragole | 140-67-0 | N/L | N/L | 51.8 (mouse) | GTX |
| Genistein d | 446-72-0 | N/L | N/L | 27.1 (rat) | EPI |
| N-methyl-N-formylhydrazine d | 758-17-8 | N/L | N/L | 1.37 (mouse) | GTX |
a IARC group 1—carcinogenic to humans; group 2A—probably carcinogenic to humans; group 2B—possibly carcinogenic to humans; group 3—not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans; group 4—probably not carcinogenic to humans. Source—Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1–131 [67] . b 1—known to be a human carcinogen; 2—reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen. Source—NTP Report on Carcinogens, 15th Edition [68] . c Only rodent data was included for comparison; Source—Lhasa Carcinogenicity Database, https://carcdb.lhasalimited.org/ (accessed on 9 July 2022). d Not discussed in this review. EPI, epigenetic modifications; GTX, genotoxicity; N/A, not available N/L, not listed.