Table 1.
Summary characteristics of the selected Studies.
| Author name | Study Type | Sampling method | Country | Study duration | Response rate % | Male % | Measurement | Sample | Target population | Study quality | Acceptance rate % (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ahmed et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Saudi Arabia | N. A | 37 | 29.4 | Dichotomy scale | 236 | Healthcare workers | 17 | 55.5 (49.16–61.84) |
| Alabdulla et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Qatar | October 15 - November 15, 2020 | N. A. | 59.43 | 5-point Likert scale | 7821 | General Population | 19 | 60 (58.91–61.09) |
| Ali & Hossain (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Bangladesh | January 18 - January 31, 2021 | 100 | 59.2 | Dichotomy scale | 1134 | General Population | 23 | 67.5 (64.77–70.23) |
| Almaghaslah et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Saudi Arabia | January 15 - February 07, 2021 | N. A. | 45.5 | 5-point Likert scale | 862 | General Population | 20 | 48 (44.66–51.34) |
| Al-Mohaithef & Badhi (2020) | Cross-sectional | Snowball sampling | Saudi Arabia | N. A. | N. A. | 34.17 | Trichotomy scale | 992 | General Population | 19 | 64.7 (61.73–67.67) |
| Alqudeimat et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | Snowball sampling | Kuwait | 26-Aug-20 | N. A. | 31.8 | 4-point Likert scale | 2368 | General Population | 27 | 53.1 (51.09–55.11) |
| Batty et al. (2021) | Cohort Study | N. A. | UK | November–December, 2020 | 62 | 43 | 4-point Likert scale | 11740 | General Population | 21 | 82.8 (82.12–83.48) |
| Bell et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | UK | April 19 - May 11, 2020 | N. A. | 5 | 4-point Likert scale | 1252 | General Population | 15 | 50.27 (47.5–53.04) |
| Benis et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | December 10 - December 24, 2020 | N. A. | 53.9 | Trichotomy scale | 1644 | General Population | 25 | 81.5 (79.62–83.38) |
| Borriello et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Australia | March 27 - March 31, 2020 | 99.3 | 49.3 | N. A. | 2136 | General Population | 16 | 86.03 (84.56–87.5) |
| Cordina et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Malta | Octoer 26 - November 26, 2020 | N. A. | 26.4 | Dichotomy scale | 2529 | General Population | 16 | 50 (48.05–51.95) |
| Dickerson et al. (2021) | Cohort study | N. A. | UK | October 29 - December 9, 2020 | 31 | 6.5 | 4-point Likert scale | 1727 | General Population | 21 | 29 (26.86–31.14) |
| Dinga et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Cameroon | May–August, 2020 | N. A. | 45.1 | Trichotomy scale | 2512 | General Population | 20 | 15.4 (13.99–16.81) |
| Ditekemena et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Congo | August 24 - September 8, 2020 | 99.3 | 31.6 | Dichotomy scale | 4131 | General Population | 21 | 55.9 (54.39–57.41) |
| Edwards et al. (2021) | Longitudinal | N. A. | Australia | Apr-20 | 7.8 | N. A. | 4-point Likert scale | 3052 | General Population | 22 | 59 (57.26–60.74) |
| Eguia et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Spain | September 10 - November 23, 2020 | 72.95 | 44.04 | Dichotomy scale | 731 | General Population | 21 | 77.57 (74.55–80.59) |
| Eguia et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Spain | September 10 - November 23, 2020 | N. A. | 45.05 | Dichotomy scale | 731 | Healthcare workers | 22 | 77.57 (74.55–80.59) |
| Ehde et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | April 10 - May 6, 2020 | 93.1 | 17.3 | 5-point Likert scale | 486 | General Population | 23 | 66 (61.79–70.21) |
| Eniade et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Nigeria | December, 2020 | N. A. | 41.1 | Trichotomy scale | 368 | General Population | 20 | 40.5 (35.48–45.52) |
| Fisher et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | April 16 - April 20, 2020 | N. A. | 64 | Trichotomy scale | 1003 | General Population | 24 | 57.6 (54.54–60.66) |
| Freeman et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | Quota sampling | UK | September 24 - October 17, 2020 | N. A. | 50 | 5-point Likert scale | 5114 | General Population | 25 | 71.7 (70.47–72.93) |
| Gagneux-Brunon et al (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | France | March 26 - July 2, 2020 | 74 | 26 | Dichotomy scale | 2047 | Healthcare workers | 28 | 76.9 (75.07–78.73) |
| Griffith et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Canada | December 10 - December 23, 2020 | N. A. | N. A. | Dichotomy scale | 3915 | General Population | 19 | 85 (83.88–86.12) |
| Harapan et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | Snowball sampling | Indonesia | March 25 - April 6, 2020 | N. A. | 34.3 | Dichotomy scale | 1359 | General Population | 25 | 93.3 (91.97–94.63) |
| Hossain et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | PPS sampling | Bangladesh | N. A. | 100 | 53 | 5-point Likert scale | 1497 | General Population | 15 | 58.9 (56.41–61.39) |
| Hou et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Brazil | June 13 - July 31, 2020 | 54.6 | N.A. | 4-point Likert scale | 214 | General Population | 16 | 67.3 (61.01–73.59) |
| Hou et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | China | June 13 - July 31, 2020 | 54.6 | N.A. | 4-point Likert scale | 2770 | General Population | 16 | 76.8 (75.23–78.37) |
| Hou et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | India | June 13 - July 31, 2020 | 54.6 | N.A. | 4-point Likert scale | 1040 | General Population | 16 | 69.8 (67.01–72.59) |
| Hou et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | UK | June 13 - July 31, 2020 | 54.6 | N.A. | 4-point Likert scale | 1440 | General Population | 16 | 51.3 (48.72–53.88) |
| Hou et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | June 13 - July 31, 2020 | 54.6 | N.A. | 4-point Likert scale | 1568 | General Population | 16 | 36.4 (34.02–38.78) |
| Hussein et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Egypt | December 1 - January 1, 2021 | 99.2 | 34.9 | 5-point Likert scale | 496 | Healthcare workers | 25 | 45.9 (41.51–50.29) |
| Iacoella et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Italy | February 1 - February 15, 2021 | 100 | 75.9 | N. A. | 112 | General Population | 16 | 64.3 (55.43–73.17) |
| Kaplan et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Turkey | December, 2020 | N. A. | 41.2 | Dichotomy scale | 1574 | Healthcare workers | 28 | 84.6 (82.82–86.38) |
| Khubchandani et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | June, 2020 | N. A. | 48 | 4-point Likert scale | 1878 | General Population | 23 | 78 (76.13–79.87) |
| Kose et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Turkey | September 17- September 20, 2020 | N. A. | 27.5 | Trichotomy scale | 1138 | Healthcare workers | 24 | 68.6 (65.9–71.3) |
| Kourlaba et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Greece | April 28- May 3, 2020 | 38.66 | 49 | Trichotomy scale | 1004 | General Population | 20 | 57.7 (54.64–60.76) |
| Kuhn et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | December 2020–January 2021 | 65.8 | 41 | Dichotomy scale | 90 | General Population | 19 | 52.22 (41.9–62.54) |
| Kwok et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Hong Kong | March 16 - April 29, 2020 | N. A. | N. A. | 6-point Likert scale | 1205 | Healthcare workers | 23 | 63 (60.27–65.73) |
| Latkin et al. (2021a) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | May 14 - May 18, 2020 | 24.1 | 29.9 | Trichotomy scale | 1056 | General Population | 22 | 53.6 (50.59–56.61) |
| Latkin et al. (2021b) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | July, 2020 | N.A. | 43.9 | 5-point Likert scale | 592 | General Population | 19 | 59.1 (55.14–63.06) |
| Ledda et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Italy | January–December, 2020 | 99 | 48 | Dichotomy scale | 2110 | Healthcare workers | 20 | 75 (73.15–76.85) |
| Lin et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | China | May 1 - May 9, 2020 | N. A. | 48.1 | 4-point Likert scale | 3541 | General Population | 26 | 83.5 (82.28–84.72) |
| Machida et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Japan | January 14 - January 18, 2021 | 98.5 | 49.32 | 5-point Likert scale | 2956 | General Population | 20 | 62.1 (60.35–63.85) |
| Mahmud et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Bangladesh | January 30 - February 06, 2020 | N. A. | 62.15 | Dichotomy scale | 605 | General Population | 30 | 61.16 (57.28–65.04) |
| Malik et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | Bootstrap resampling | USA | May, 2020 | N. A. | 43 | 5-point Likert scale | 672 | General Population | 19 | 67 (63.44–70.56) |
| Manning et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | August 10 - September 14, 2020 | 84.9 | 10.89 | Trichotomy scale | 1212 | Healthcare workers | 17 | 45.87 (43.06–48.68) |
| Mo et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | China | November 1 - November 28, 2020 | 72.3 | 36.4 | 5-point Likert scale | 6940 | General Population | 23 | 78.9 (77.94–79.86) |
| Murphy et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Ireland | March 31 - April 05, 2020 | N. A. | 48.2 | Trichotomy scale | 1041 | General Population | 27 | 65 (62.1–67.9) |
| Murphy et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | UK | March 23 - March 28, 2020 | N. A. | 48.3 | Trichotomy scale | 2025 | General Population | 27 | 69 (66.99–71.01) |
| Nguyen et al. (2021) | Cohort study | N. A. | UK | March 24, 2020–February 16, 2021 | 28.33 | 46.34 | Trichotomy scale | 1254294 | General Population | 28 | 95 (94.96–95.04) |
| Nguyen et al. (2021) | Cohort study | N. A. | USA | March 24, 2020–February 16, 2021 | 23.6 | 45.35 | Trichotomy scale | 87388 | General Population | 28 | 91 (90.81–91.19) |
| Nzaji et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Congo | March–April 30, 2020 | N. A. | 50.9 | Dichotomy scale | 613 | Healthcare workers | 22 | 27.7 (24.16–31.24) |
| Oliveira et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | Multistage stratified sampling | Brazil | October 19 - October 30, 2020 | 90.78 | 80.2 | Trichotomy scale | 4630 | General Population | 21 | 82.5 (81.41–83.59) |
| Olomofe et al (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Nigeria | N. A | N. A. | 58.1 | Trichotomy scale | 776 | General Population | 25 | 58.1 (54.63–61.57) |
| Papagiannis et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Greece | December 15 - December 22, 2020 | N. A. | 50 | Dichotomy scale | 340 | Healthcare workers | 20 | 78.5 (74.13–82.87) |
| Pastorino et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Italy | June 8 - July 12, 2020 | 78 | 29.59 | Dichotomy scale | 436 | General Population | 22 | 94.73 (92.63–96.83) |
| Paul et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | UK | September 7 - October 5, 2020 | 71.57 | 49.4 | 6-point Likert scale | 32361 | General Population | 18 | 63 (62.47–63.53) |
| Puteikis & Mameniškienė (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Europe | December 7 - December 31, 2020 | 100 | 39.6 | Dichotomy scale | 111 | General Population | 23 | 40.54 (31.41–49.67) |
| Qattan et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Saudi Arabia | December 8 - December 14, 2020 | 91.44 | 60.18 | Dichotomy scale | 736 | Healthcare workers | 20 | 50.52 (46.91–54.13) |
| Reiter et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | May, 2020 | N. A. | 43 | 5-point Likert scale | 2006 | General Population | 20 | 68.5 (66.47–70.53) |
| Reno et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Italy | January 19 - January 26, 2021 | 100 | 44.8 | 6-point Likert scale | 1011 | General Population | 25 | 68.9 (66.05–71.75) |
| Robertson et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | UK | November 24 - December 1, 2020 | 62 | 46.8 | 4-point Likert scale | 12035 | General Population | 28 | 82 (81.31–82.69) |
| Saied et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Egypt | January, 2021 | N. A. | 34.8 | Trichotomy scale | 2133 | Healthcare workers | 24 | 34.9 (32.88–36.92) |
| Sallam et al. (2021a) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Jordan | December 14 - December 18, 2020 | N. A. | 30.6 | Dichotomy scale | 2173 | General Population | 26 | 28.4 (26.5–30.3) |
| Sallam et al. (2021a) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Kuwait | December 14 - December 18, 2020 | N. A. | 30.6 | Dichotomy scale | 771 | General Population | 23 | 23.6 (20.6–26.6) |
| Sallam et al. (2021b) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Jordan | January 19 - January 23, 2021 | 96.2 | 27.5 | Trichotomy scale | 1106 | General Population | 22 | 34.9 (32.09–37.71) |
| Salmon et al. (2021) | Panel survey | N. A. | USA | November 25 - December 07, 2020 | N. A. | 48.2 | Trichotomy scale | 2525 | General Population | 20 | 50 (48.05–51.95) |
| Sarasty et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Ecuador | April 2 - April 7, 2020 | N. A. | 61 | Dichotomy scale | 1050 | General Population | 21 | 97 (95.97–98.03) |
| Savoia et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | USA | December 13 - December 23, 2020 | 84 | 53.5 | 6-point Likert scale | 2650 | General Population | 18 | 67 (65.21–68.79) |
| Schwarzinger et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | France | June 22 - July 3, 2020 | 97.1 | 48.9 | N. A. | 1942 | General Population | 20 | 71.2 (69.19–73.21) |
| Shekhar et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | Snowball sampling | USA | October 7 - November 9, 2020 | 85.26 | 25 | Trichotomy scale | 3479 | Healthcare workers | 19 | 36 (34.4–37.6) |
| Sherman et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | Quota sampling | UK | July 14 - July 17, 2020 | 98 | 49 | Dichotomy scale | 1500 | General Population | 24 | 64 (61.57–66.43) |
| Shmueli (2020) | cross-sectional | N.A | Israiel | May 24- June 24, 2020 | N. A. | 40 | Dichotomy scale | 398 | General Population | 21 | 80 (76.07–83.93) |
| Soares et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Portugal | September 2020–January 2021 | N. A. | 28.89 | Dichotomy scale | 1943 | General Population | 27 | 55 (52.79–57.21) |
| Sun et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | China | March–April, 2020 | 100 | 30.23 | Trichotomy scale | 1912 | General Population | 21 | 64.01 (61.86–66.16) |
| Taylor et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | Commercial survey sampling | Canada | May, 2020 | N. A. | 57 | Dichotomy scale | 1902 | General Population | 16 | 80 (78.2–81.8) |
| Taylor et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | Commercial survey sampling | USA | May, 2020 | N. A. | 57 | Dichotomy scale | 1772 | General Population | 19 | 75 (72.98–77.02) |
| Tulloch et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | England | January 21 - January 29, 2021 | 53 | N. A. | N. A. | 46 | General Population | 20 | 52.4 (37.97–66.83) |
| Verger et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | France | October–November, 2020 | 100 | 30.75 | 5-point Likert scale | 2678 | Healthcare workers | 24 | 71.62 (69.91–73.33) |
| Wang et al. (2020a) | Cross-sectional | Stratified random sampling | China | March, 2020 | N. A. | 45.8 | Dichotomy scale | 2058 | General Population | 28 | 91.3 (90.08–92.52) |
| Wang et al. (2020b) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Hong Kong | February–March, 2020 | 5.18 | 19.3 | Trichotomy scale | 806 | Healthcare workers | 15 | 40 (36.62–43.38) |
| Wang et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | China | January 10 - January 22, 2021 | 99.6 | 33.6 | Dichotomy scale | 8742 | General Population | 19 | 67.1 (66.12–68.08) |
| Ward et al. (2020) | Cross-sectional | Stratified random sampling | France | April, 2020 | N. A. | N. A. | Dichotomy scale | 5018 | General Population | 26 | 76 (74.82–77.18) |
| Wong et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Hong kong | July 27 - August 27, 2020 | 55 | 28.7 | Dichotomy scale | 1200 | General Population | 20 | 37.2 (34.47–39.93) |
| Yurttas et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Turkey | January 4 - January 13, 2021 | 100 | 33.81 | Trichotomy scale | 763 | General Population | 26 | 34.6 (31.22–37.98) |
| Yurttas et al. (2021) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | Turkey | January 4 - January 13, 2021 | 22.85 | 27.5 | Trichotomy scale | 320 | Healthcare workers | 26 | 52.5 (47.03–57.97) |
| Zhang et al. (2020b) | Cross-sectional | N. A. | China | September 1 - September 7, 2020 | 77.4 | 37.5 | 5-point Likert scale | 1052 | General Population | 22 | 72.6 (69.9–75.3) |
PPS, Probability proportional to size; N.A., Not available; UK, United Kingdom; USA, United States of America.