Table 1.
Study characteristics of the final 14 studies.
| Study | Methods | Participants | Causes of Vaccine Hesitancy |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ahmed et al. [6] |
Cross-sectional survey | >18 years, residing in Somalia (n = 4543) | Cultural reasons, not needed (6.22% of respondents felt it was ineffective) and it being dangerous (9.33% of respondents were scared of side effects) |
| Ahmed et al. [7] | Cross-sectional survey | >18 years, residing in Pakistan. (n = 655) | Not needed (belief that a Muslim’s trust in God is enough protection was significantly associated with vaccine hesitancy (AOR 2.45; 95% CI 1.34–4.48), vaccination is dangerous, lack of trust and cultural reasons |
| Dorman, et al. [8] | Cross-sectional survey | >18 years, residing in Orange County, USA, (n = 26,324) | Not needed, vaccination is dangerous (confidence in vaccination safety was a key determinant of willingness to be vaccinated (r = 0.723, p < 0.001)) |
| El-Elimat et al. [9] | Cross-sectional survey | >18 years, residing in Jordan (n = 3100) | Lack of trust, vaccination is dangerous (<60% respondents believed that pharmaceutical companies would be able to make a safe and effective vaccination; 49.6% reported that they would not have the vaccine due to side effects) |
| Galistianiet et al. [10] | Cross-sectional survey | Aged 20–59 years, residing in Hungary (n = 1631) | Not needed (55.4% of unvaccinated participants did not believe that influenza vaccination was the best way to prevent influenza); vaccination is dangerous |
| Kreps et al. [11] |
Cross-sectional survey | >18 years and above. (n = 1027) | Not needed; vaccination is dangerous (63.9% of the hesitant respondents thought the side effects would be severe) |
| Kumari et al. [12] |
Thematic analysis of focus group discussions | >18 years, residing in India (n = 39). | Not needed, dangerous, lack of trust (the study findings suggested that trust in the safety of vaccines was a driver for a positive attitude towards vaccine acceptance) |
| Montalti, et al. [13] |
Cross-sectional survey | >18 years old from Bologna and Palermo (n = 443) | Not needed, dangerous, lack of trust (24.4% of respondents in one city cited they were aware of cases where people had become “damaged” as a result of vaccination) |
| Quinn et al. [14] |
Cross-sectional survey | 819 African American 838 White respondents, all >18 years |
Not needed (African Americans had a statistically significant higher dependency on naturalism as an alternative to vaccination), dangerous, lack of trust |
| Qunaibi et al. [15] |
Cross-sectional survey | Adults of Arab ethnicity from 145 countries (n = 36,220) | Not needed, dangerous (55.7% of respondents had concerns about the safety of the vaccine), lack of trust |
| Roy et al. [16] |
Cross-sectional study | >18 years in US (n = 108,700) |
Not needed (66–74% respondents felt it was not necessary), dangerous, lack of trust |
| Subramaniam et al. [17] | Population-based longitudinal survey | >18 years and over residing in India (n = 3000) | Not needed (8.1% of vaccine resistant respondents), dangerous, lack of trust |
| Syed et al. [18] |
Cross-sectional study | >18 years, residing in Malaysia (n = 1411) | Not needed, dangerous (including fear of side-effects (95.8%, RII = 0.98)), lack of trust, cultural reasons |
| Wong et al. [19] |
Cross-sectional survey | >18 years from 973 households in Soweto and 1442 households in Klerksdorp | Not needed (some participants believed that the influenza vaccine would not prevent influenza (Soweto: 23, 19%; Klerksdorp: 17, 19%; p = 0.9)), dangerous, lack of trust and cultural reasons |