Table 3.

Summary of the effects of various murine models and in vivo studies utilising probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics on gut inflammation.

Probiotic Intervention	Effect on Inflammation	Type of Study/Species
Lactobacilli	Inhibition of IL-6 production [141]	Ex vivo in LPS-stimulated mononuclear cells from mice
	Downregulation of NF-κB [142]	SAMP1/Yit mice
	Upregulation of MUC3 and MUC3 mRNA expression [143]	HT29 cells
	Improvement in intestinal barrier integrity by inhibition of epithelial cell apoptosis [144]	Healthy Humans
	Lack of remission maintenance of ulcerative colitis (UC) or Crohn’s disease (CD) [145,146]	UC/CD patients
Bifidobacterium	Suppression of Bacteroides vulgatus growth [147]	Mice
	Attenuation of inflammation in IL-10 knock-out mice [148]	IL-10 knock mice
	Improvement in inflammation in colitis [149]	DSS-induced colitis in mice
	Reduction in histological injury score, ileal tissue weight, myeloperoxidase activity, tissue contents of immunoglobulin, TNF-α, and increased IL-10 secretion [150]	SAMP1/Yit mice
VSL #3 (four strains of Lactobacillus, three strains of Bifidobacterium and one strain of Streptococcus)	Reduction in TNF-α and IFN-γ secretion Improvement in colonic barrier function [150]	IL-10 Knock out mice
	Inhibition of TNF-α induced IL-8 secretion, MAPK, and NF-Κβ activation in HT-29 cells [151]	HT-29 cells
	Potentiation of mucin expression [152]	LSL174T cells and in vivo in rats
	No repair in colonic barrier breakdown or attenuation of colitis [153]	DSS-induced colitis in mice
	Effective against maintenance and treatment of active UC [154]	Clinical Trial
Prebiotic Intervention	Effect on inflammation	Type of study/species
GBF (Germinated barley foodstuff) [155]	Improvement in microflora composition [156] Increase in butyrate levels [157] Decrease in serum IL-8 concentration and in α1-acid glucoprotein concentration [158] Suppression of mucosal infiltration from inflammatory cells [159]	DSS-induced colitis in rats
Fructo and milk oligosaccharides [160]	FOS: Attenuation of trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) induced colitis Increased presence of lactic acid-producing bacteria Increased butyrate levels [161]	TNBS-induced colitis in rats
	Fructooligosaccharide: No improvement in disease activity [162]	DSS-colitis model in mice
	Goat milk oligosaccharides: Beneficial in the maintenance of body weight in DSS-mice Decreased myeloperoxidase activity Increased MUC3 expression Milder disease manifestation [163]	DSS-colitis model in mice
	Fructooligosaccharide: Increased IL-10 expression in dendritic cells as well as the increase of Bifidobacteria [164]	Human Crohn’s disease patients
Inulin and oligofructose [165]	Oligofructose: Increased Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli activity [166]	Healthy Humans
	Oligofructose: Prevention of colitis development [167]	HLA-B27 transgenic mice
	Inulin (separately): Attenuated inflammation and caused an increase in lactic bacteria presence with a decrease in pH [168]	DSS-colitis model in mice
	Inulin and oligofructose in combination: increase in lactic bacteria and decreased pH [166]	Healthy Humans
Psyllium [169]	Amelioration of colonic damage through increased SCFA synthesis Decreased synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines [170]	-HLA-B27 transgenic rats
Synbiotic Intervention	Effect on inflammation	Type of study/species
Bifidobacterium longum and inulinoligofructose	Beneficial synergistic effect Improved disease pathology in comparison to prebiotics or probiotics by themselves Decrease in TNF-α and IL-1b levels Anti-inflammatory effect seen in endoscopic markers [171]	Clinical trial with UC patients
Bifidobacterium longum and psyllium	Beneficial synergistic effect Improved disease pathology in comparison to prebiotics or probiotics by themselves [172]	Clinical trial with UC patients
B.breve Yakult strain and galactooligosaccharides	Decrease in inflammation in mild to moderate UC [173]	Clinical trial with UC patients