Table A1.
A systematic review of fungus species, growth parameters, and main results in the scientific literature.
| Fungi | Substrate | Substrate Sterilization | Incubation and Growing | Denaturing and Drying | Product/Application | Results | Reference | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ganoderma sp. | Cotton-based (processed cotton carpel, cotton seed hull, starch, and gypsum) | 115 °C, 28 min | 21 °C, 5 days in the plastic mold shaped as the piece to be fabricated. | 60 °C, 8 h | Packaging material | MBC meets or exceeds the characteristics of extruded polystyrene foam | [21] |
| 2 | Ganoderma lucidum | Red oak wood, nutrient solution (pending IP); 5.0 to 15 mm chips | Not specified | Not specified | 220 °C, 120 min, from 60–65% to 10–20% MC, then seasoned to ca. 6% MC | Foam core of sandwich board | MBC is frangible resulting in a low ultimate tensile strength and a high stiffness. The strength of MBC increases with decreasing moisture content. The MBC has an average density and strength; its properties are closest to those of expanded polystyrene foam | [22] |
| 3 | Not specified (supplied by Ecovative Design) | Rice husk, wheat grain (three variants: 50/50, 70/30, 30/70) | In high pressure saturated steam, 121 °C, 15–20 min. | 21 days in the container | 50 °C, 46 h | Insulative packaging material | Comparing to polystyrene foam the MBC are 100% biodegradable, non-toxic, produce ten time less carbon dioxide (CO2) and require about eight times less energy to produce. | [23] |
| 4 | Not specified (probably as [21]) | Rice straw, hemp pith, kenaf fiber, switch grass, sorghum fiber, cotton bur fiber and flax shive | Through the process reported by [21] | As [21] | As [21] | Insulation panels | Optimal performance at the noise frequency of 1000 Hz. MBC are comparable to polyurethane foam board and are better than plywood | [24] |
| 5 | Ganoderma lucidum | As [22] | Not specified | vacuum skin mold (bag) | As [22] | Foam core of sandwich board | The flexibility of layered structures depends on the technological parameters used. | [25] |
| 6 | Probably Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom) | Cotton seed hulls, carboxylated styrene butadiene rubber (sbr) latex, and silane coupling agent | Not specified | 5–7 days | Oven | The latex-mycelium composite insulation material | 5% latex admixture increases the strength of the MBC, 10% latex kills the mycelium. Silane slightly increases strength, does not harm the mycelium | [26] |
| 7 | Not specified | Spent mushrooms compost (from 0% to 17%), clay | Compost oven-dried at 110 °C | No incubation | Not applicable | Brick (to build walls) | 17% reduction in compost of 10% thermal transmittance | [27] |
| 8 | T. versicolor, Pleurotus ostreatus | Hemp (hurd/mat/fibers), wood chips (not specified) | Boiling 100 min. or 0.3% hydrogen-peroxide | Room temp., 90 to 100% RH, dark conditions, 30 days | Oven at 125 °C, 120 min. | Insulating foam | Hemp-mat + T. versicolor has the highest compressive strength | [29] |
| 9 | Ceriporia lacerata | Soybean straw | Without sterilization | 25 °C for 5 days | Dried at 60 °C | Construction board | High compressive strength, good thermal insulation and good sound absorption | [30] |
| 10 | Ganoderma lucidum | Wood and additives (not specified) | Not specified | 25 ± 3 °C, low light, 14 days | Above 70 °C, to 5% MH | Checking the susceptibility to machining | – | [31] |
| 11 | Lentinula edodes, Pleurotus ostreatus, Ganoderma lucidum | Straw, wood shavings, corn stalk, rice husks | hydrogen-peroxide | Under moist conditions in the dark, about 2 weeks | Not specified | Panels | Mold disinfection is crucial to avoid growth of any species other than the fungi | [32] |
| 12 | Pleurotus sp. | Crop residues, carrageenan, chitosan, xanthan gum | 85 °C for 120 min | 23 °C, 30 days, wooden molds | 25 °C, 48 h | Packaging material | MBCs do not pose as an alternative to expanded polystyrene | [33] |
| 13 | Not specified | Core: agricultural waste substrates; outer layers: jute, flax, cellulose | 10% hydrogen peroxide | Semi-permeable polypropylene bag, up to 98% RH, incubation process: 5 days, 24 °C. | A convection oven at 82 °C for 12 h and 93 °C for 8 h, pressed at 250 °C for 20 min | Packaging material | Flexural strength depends on the degree of colonization of the mycelium within the outer layers and the bonding between the outer layers and the core. Stiffness depends on the core (weakly bound outer layers only slightly increase bending strength) | [34] |
| 14 | Not specified | Cotton ginning waste and hemp pith (core), fiber fabric (surface) | Not specified | Not specified | 110 °C, 24 h | Three layered packaging material | The MCB is light, buoyant, and hydrophilic, and has a soft outer surface with high elasticity. Tensile and compression properties confirm the use of MBC in packaging instead of expanded polystyrene | [35] |
| 15 | Pleurotus pulmonarius, P. ostreatus, P. salmoneo-stramineus, Cyclocybe aegerita (specified as A. agrocibe) | Woodchips of eucalyptus, oak, pine, apple, vine | Autoclaved at 121 °C for 1 h | 25 °C, 4–5 weeks | 105 °C, 48 h | A foam | The most efficient bonding was observed for P. ostreatus grown on apple or vine woodchips | [36] |
| 16 | Pleurotus ostreatus | Agar, seed, straw, wood, sand and plastic | Autoclaving | 22 °C, not specified | Not specified | Spherical fungal assembly elements | Elements made of mycelium may be self-assembling | [37] |
| 17 | Pleurotus ostreatus, Fomes fomentarius | Beech, European oak, pear, spruce, sand or gravel | Autoclaving | 25–28 °C, 14–28 days | 95 °C | Building component | MBC have advantageous insulating properties, but their stiffness, tensile and compressive strength are not sufficient | [38] |
| 18 | Basidiomycetes [21] | Agricultural by-products | Via the process reported by [21] | As [21] | As [21] | Low-density board, 5 levels of densities | Uncompressed MBC boards are low-VOC alternatives to acoustical ceiling tiles in sound shielding applications; Densified MBC boards are alternatives to OSB and MDF. After reaching a density of 0.9 g/cm3, the MBC properties do not improve | [40] |
| 19 | Ganoderma lucidum, Pleurotus ostreatus | Cellulose and cellulose/potato-dextrose (PDB) | autoclaved at 120 °C, 15 min | 25–30 °C, 70–80% RH, 20 days, agar plug | 60 °C, 2 h | Easy-to-grow fibrous mycelium film | The substrate should be homogeneous. The addition of PDB to the substrate increases stiffness of mycelium-based composites | [41] |
| 20 | Irpex lacteus | Sawdust pulp (Betula neoalaskana), millet grain, wheat bran, natural fiber, calcium sulfate | pasteurization | 14–42 days | 60 °C for 24 h | foam | Densely packed MBC samples have comparable, elastic moduli, compressive strength, and thermal conductivity to the polymeric thermal foams except dry density | [42] |
| 21 | Not specified (supplied by Ecovative Design) | Biotex Jute, Biotex Flax, BioMid cellulose plain weave | 10% hydrogen peroxide | 24 °C, 5 days | 82 °C, 12 h and 93 °C, 8 h then pressed (250 °C, 20 min) | Core of sandwich structure | Strength depends on the intensity of mycelium colonization within the skin and the bond between the skin and the core and the substrate. The used fungi preferred flax reinforcement, strength was significantly higher than the jute and cellulose | [43] |
| 22 | Trametes versicolor, Daedaleopsis confragosa, Ganoderma resinaceum | Cellulosic fibers: corn stover, kenaf pith, hemp pith | 115 °C, 28 min | 2 °C, 5 days | Convection oven, 60 °C, 8 h | Improvement of termite resistance | Addition of guayule resin caused maximum MBC repellency to termites; vetiver oil was slightly less effective. Addition of borax was least effective as a termiticide. | [44] |
| 23 | Not specified (obtained from Ecovative Design, LLC) | Not specified, Nutrition (calcium and carbohydrate) | Not specified | Not specified | Dried at “elevated temperature” for “several hours” | Pure mycelium | In tension: linear elastic at low strain, and then yields and strain hardening before rupture. In compression: the stress–strain curve has first a linear-elastic form followed by a plateau form with a softened response (similar to open cell foam). In loading and unloading cycles: strain is dependent on hysteresis and progressive stress softening effect (Mullins effect). | [45] |
| 24 | Pleurotus ostreatus, Schizophyllum commune, Trametes multicolor | Azolla filiculoides | 121 °C, 20 min. | 25 °C, 7 days | 60 °C | Extractable paste for 3D printing | Applicable for robotic manufacturing of biocomposite structures | [46] |
| 25 | Schizophyllum commune wild type strain (CBS 341.81) and its derivative Δsc3 | Not applivable. | N.A. | 30 °C, 1 + 3 + 5 days, in the light or in the dark | dried at room temperature. | Pure mycelium | Mechanical properties of the mycelium of S. commune can be changed by inactivating the sc3 hydrophobin gene. Mechanical properties of wild type mycelium were similar to natural materials, while those of Δsc3 were more similar to thermoplastics | [48] |
| 26 | Not specified | Corn stover (three particle size ranges) | Sterilized for 2 h at 15 psi (103.4 kPa) | temp. not specified, 4 + 4 days | 100 °C for several hours | Tiles | Increasing supplemental nutrition after a homogenization step increases the mechanical properties of MBC (observed continuity of the mycelium network was greater) | [51] |
| 27 | Trametes sp., Schizo-phyllum commune | Agricultural waste and fruit/vegetable peels | Not specified | 25–30 °C, +21 days | Drying above 60 °C | Not compressed, cold and hot compressed boards | Useful for packaging material, furniture, footwear and others | [53] |
| 28 | Oxyporus latermarginatus (EM26), Megasporoporia minor MG65, Ganoderma resinaceum GR33 | Wheat straw | Autoclaving, 115 °C, 15 min | 28 °C, 8 weeks | 70 °C | Insulation materials | The choice of fungi species depends on the degradation rate of different substrates. Rapid colonization of the substrate is required because excessive degradation of the substrate leads to weakening of the MBC. MBC shown good thermal performance | [49] |
| 29 | Trametes versicolor | Glass fines, wheat grains, and rice hulls | 121 °C, 15 psi (103.4 kPa), 40 min | 25 °C, 50% RH, 12 days | 50 °C, 48 h | Fire safe mycelium biocomposites | MBC are safer than the typical construction materials: producing much lower heat release rates, less smoke and CO2 and longer time to flashover. The composites with glass fines had the best fire performance. | [50] |
| 30 | As [45] (supplied by Ecovative Design, LLC) | Corn stover particles and nutrition (calcium and carbohydrate) | Not specified | 25 °C, 4 + 4 days | 100 °C, 4 h | Mycelium composites reinforced with agro-waste | The soft elastic response of pure mycelium at small strains (stiffening at larger strains), stress softening effect and hysteresis under cyclic compression were observed | [52] |
| 31 | Trametes multicolor (T. ochracea) (Mycelia BVBAM9915); Pleurotus ostreatus (SPOPO Sylvan 195) | Beech sawdust, rapeseed straw, non-woven cotton fiber | Autoclaving | 25 °C, 24 days, RH 55–70%, darkness | 150 °C, 20 min. | Boards | Straw-based mycelium composites are stiffer and less moisture-resistant than cotton-based | [57] |
| 32 | Not specified | Jute, flax, and cellulose textile as outer layers; mycelium-bound agricultural waste with a soy-based bioresin as cores | As in [139] | As in [139] | As in [139] | Three-layer sandwich-structure | Soy-based bioresin significantly increased the mechanical properties of the MBC. | [58] |
| 33 | Trametes versicolor, Polyporus brumalis | Agricultural by-products (wheat straw, rice hulls, sugarcane bagasse, blackstrap molasses) and agricultural products (wheat grains, malt extract) | Autoclaved at 121 °C for 20 min. | 25 °C, 7 days, without light | 85 °C, 1 h | Pure mycelium | Mycelium grew slow on rice hull, sugarcane bagasse and wheat straw. Liquid blackstrap molasses accelerates growth, outperforming laboratory malt extracts. | [59] |
| 34 | Not specified (white-rot basidiomycete mycelium) | Mixture of spruce, pine, and fir | Not specified | Not specified | Dried at 43 °C | Particleboard | Cellulose nanofibers added to the substrate improved the mechanical properties of MBC by 5% | [60] |
| 35 | Colorius sp., Trametes sp., Ganoderma sp. | Vine and apple tree-pruning woodchips with 1% flour and 3% wheat straw | Autoclaved at 100 °C, 1 h | 23 °C, 95% RH, 14 days | 60 °C, 48 h | Foam | Some disadvantages of the material can be turned into advantages, for example, high water absorption could be beneficial in specific applications. | [61] |
| 36 | Coprinopsis cinerea, Pleurotus djamor | Not applicable | Not applicable | cultured at 28 and 37 °C in the dark, then 25 °C under a 12 h light/12 h dark cycle | Biochemically stopped | Not applicable | Biochemical solution to regulate the fruiting body formation, which may replace heat killing of mycelium | [62] |
| 37 | Fomitopsis pinicola, Gloeophyllum sepiarium, Laetiporus sulphureus, Phaeolus schweinitzii, Piptoporus betulinus, Pleurotus ostreatus, Polyporus arcularius, Trametes pubescens, T. suaveolens, Trichaptum abietinum | Birch, aspen, spruce, pine, fir sawdust and shavings | Sterilized at 121 °C for 60 min. | 23 °C, 21 + 21 days | 140 °C, 120 min. | Boards | Polyporus arcularius and Trametes suaveolens and birch wood shavings are the best combination | [63] |
| 38 | Lentinula edodes LED AJU1, L. edodes LED CHI, L. edodes LED 96/18 | Coconut powder, wheat bran | Autoclaved at 121 °C for 60 min. | 25 ± 1 °C, 7 + 23 days, without light | 50 °C, 24 h | Test samples | The tested composite is suitable as a packaging material | [64] |
| 39 | Trametes versicolor (M9912) | Flax dust, flax long, wheat straw dust, wheat straw, hemp fibres and pine wood shavings | Autoclaved at 121 °C for 20 min. | 28 °C, 16 days | 70 °C, 5–10 h | Thermal insulation | The thermal conductivity and water absorption coefficient of MBC are comparable to rock wool, glass wool and extruded polystyrene. The mechanical performance of the MBC depends more on the fiber arrangement than on the chemical composition of the fibers | [65] |
| 40 | Trametes versicolor | Spruce wood particles | 121 °C, 1.25 kPa, 60 min | 30 ± 2 °C, 21 days, without light | 60 °C, 8 h | Construction material (samples) | Mycelial bond strength is equivalent to synthetic resin bond strength | [66] |
| 41 | Pycnoporus sanguineus 14G (MIUCS 778), Pleurotus albidus 88F.13 (MIUCS 1586), Lentinus velutinus 180H.18 (MIUCS 1196) | Pinus sawdust, wheat bran, agar, calcium carbonate | Autoclaved, 30 min, 1 atm | 28 °C, for 10 days and 24 ± 2 °C for 15 days | 80 °C, 24 h. | Biofoams | Thermogravimetric profile similar to expanded polystyrene, lower thermal stability, but remaining stable up to 350 °C. The compression strength is 60% greater; MBC are biodegradable | [67] |
| 42 | Ganoderma sp. | 56.3% corn stover, 27% grain spawn, 2.4% maltodextrin, 0.8% calcium sulfate, and 13.5% complex of nutrients and mineral mixture | Not specified | 30–35 °C | Dried at 43 °C | Board of pure fungal mycelium | Pure mycelium foams is suitable for acoustic shielding products, especially for low to mid-frequency range noise. The mycelium biofoam is also suitable for fire-resistant layers, shoe textile support foams, clothing, and even scaffolding for medical bio-organs and as substitute of meat | [68] |
| 43 | Ganoderma lucidum | Cassava bagasse, palm sugar fiber, rice bran | Not specified | Room temperature for 12 days | 55–60 °C for about 20 h | Construction board | composition of the raw materials affected the density, swelling thickness, water absorption, MOE and MOR | [69] |
| 44 | Ganoderma lucidum | Cotton stalk | 121 °C for 1 h | 25 °C, 65% RH for 7 days | 65 °C for 10 h | Pressed block | Properties were significantly improved with the increase of hot-pressing temperature | [70] |
| 45 | Ganoderma boninense | Polyester resin, epoxy resin | Not applicable | Not applicable | Not applicable | Block of composites mushrooms + resin | Mushrooms above 5% decrease in composite hardness | [75] |
| 46 | Ganoderma lucidum | Cotton stalk, bran | 121 °C for 1 h. | 25 °C, 65% RH for 7 days | Hot-pressed at 200 °C for 6 min | The mat of 500 × 300 × 12 mm | Strong natural fibers, such as wood and bamboo, are recommended | [80] |
| 47 | Trametes versicolor | Hemp shives and hardwood chips | Sterilized | 22 ± 2 °C, 70 ± 5% RH | 93 °C | Lightweight, thermal insulation materials | The strength, water absorption, and biodegradability of 5 combinations of fungi and substrates were compared. | [78] |
| 48 | Ganoderma lucidum | Bamboo fiber | Pasteurization | 30–35 °C, 21 days | 80 °C, 9 h | Boards | Non-structural function in buildings | [72] |
| 49 | Ganoderma lucidum | Potato dextrose broth, D-glucose, alkali lignin | Autoclaved | 27 °C, 28 days, 78% RH, in the dark | 50 °C, 15 h | Test samples of pure mycelium or mycelium cellulose composite | All mycelia are more or less hydrophobic | [73] |
| 50 | Not specified (obtained from Ecovative Design) | Not specified (obtained from Ecovative Design) + wheat flour | Autoclaved | 23 ℃, 6–10 days | 95 °C, 4 h | 3D printed samples | 3D printing with biomass–fungi material is possible | [76] |
| 51 | Pleurotus ostreatus, P. citrinopileatus, P. eryngii, G. lucidum | An undyed nonwoven fabric mat with a fiber content of 45% recycled jute, 49% cotton, 15% cornstarch | 80–90 °C, time not specified | 25 °C, 7 days | 90 °C, 2 h | Biodegradable footwear | Fungi species and substrate (fabric) affected the density. Higher density causes higher compressive strength. | [74] |
| 52 | Trichoderma asperellum, Agaricus bisporus, P. ostreatus (HAMBI FBCC0515), G. lucidum (HAMBI FBCC665), P. ostreatus sajor caju (HAMBI FBCC471), P. ostreatus florida (HAMBI FBCC469), K. mutabilis (HAMBI FBCC2164), F. velutipes (HAMBI FBCC583 | Oat husk 1:1, oat and birch sawdust 1:2, oat straw 1:2, rapeseed cake 4:3 | 120 °C, 20 min | 21 °C, 21 days | 98 °C, 5 min | Block | MBC with Agaricus bisporus gave high resistance to moisture. Hydromechanical stress factors via dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) are effective to simulate potential conditions for mycelium composites during expected usage. | [77] |
| 53 | Ganoderma lucidum | Bamboo culms, chitosan | 121 °C, 1 h | 25–28 °C, RH 65–80%, 7–28 days and 23 ± 0.5 °C, RH 65–70%, 20 days | Dried in an oven | Extrudable paste | Chitosan with mycelium-enriched bamboo is suitable for building elements with complex shapes | [79] |
| 54 | Ganoderma lucidum, Pleurotus ostreatus, Auricularia polytricha | Rubber tree (Hevea brasliensis) sawdust, rice bran, lime powder, diaper core, coffee, banana skin, eggshell, sugarcane | Not specified | Not specified | 20 min under a 10 MPa pressure at 160 °C | Board | It is possible to produce formaldehyde free bio-boards from spent mushroom substrate. | [81] |
| 55 | Ganoderma lucidum, Pleurotus ostreatus | Clay, sawdust (mixed wood species), bleached and unbleached cellulose | 117–120 °C, 0.8–1 bar, 120 min | 24 °C, 80% RH, 14 days | 600 °C, 6 h, and 960 °C, 2.5 h | Fired brick | Mycelium enhances tensile strength along the extrusion axis and the connection between the layers | [82] |
| 56 | Ganoderma lucidum, Trametes hirsuta, Pycnoporus sanguineus, Fomes fomentarius | Beech, spruce | 121 °C, 2 × 60 min | 25 °C, 21–35 days | 80 °C, 22 h | Block | The use of wood chips as a substrate causes a higher density of MBC and increases its strength | [83] |
| 57 | Trametes hirsuta, Schizophyllum commune, Kuehneromyces mutabilis, Bjerkandera adusta, Gloeophyllum odoratum, Lenzites betulina, Xylaria hypoxylon, Daedalopsis configrosa, Coprinellus micaceus | Sorghum seeds, rapeseed straw | Not specified | 25 °C in the dark for 7–10 days + 28 days | 6 min at 130 °C with 28 MPa. | Small cylinder | There is a correlation between the extent of colonization and the strength of the material | [1] |
| 58 | Pleurotus ostreatus | Wood (not specified sawdust) | 121 °C, 15 min, sawdust was chemically sterilized | 25 °C, 5 days and 24–27 °C, RH 80%, 8–10 days | Not specified | Cylinder | The mycelium biocomposite could substitute expanded polystyrene (EPS) | [84] |
| 59 | Fomes fomentarius | Fungus fruit body | Not applicable | Not specified | Not applied | Test samples | The fruit bodies of bracket fungi show surprising recovery properties in the wet state | [85] |
| 60 | Trametes versicolor M9921, Ganoderma resinaceum M9726 | Hemp hurds, beechwood sawdust | 121 °C, 20 min | 26 °C, in darkness, 9 days + 22 days | 125 °C, 10 h | Compressed board | Producing complex shapes with mycelium materials at the architectural scale is possible | [86] |
| 61 | Ganoderma applanatum, Fomes fomentarius, Agaricus bisporus, Trametes versicolor | Bleached softwood Kraft fibers, Hemp fibers | 165 °C, 75 min and chemically washed | Not specified | Not specified | Test samples | G. applanatum, F. fomentarius, A. bisporus, T. versicolor are applicable for blending with cellulose fibers | [87] |
| 62 | Pleurotus ostreatus | Coir-pith and wood (not specified sawdust) | 120 °C, 15 psi (103.4 kPa), 15 min | 27 °C, RH 80%, 4 + 14 days | 140 °C, 20 min | Board | The mycelium biocomposite could substitute EPS in packaging application | [88] |
| 63 | Ganoderma lucidum | Wheat straws (90%), polypropylene with bacterial spores (10%) | 70% ethanol, rinsed in sterilize water, UV radiation for 10 min | 30 °C, 30–35 days | 80 °C, for 5 to 10 h | Board | The fungal biocomposite presented similar compressive strength and improved thermal insulation capacity compared to polystyrene | [89] |
| 64 | Pleurotus ostreatus | Hemp, rice straw, lacquer tree wood chips, and oak wood chips | 121 °C, 90 min | 20 °C, 65% RH, no light, 7 + 25 days | Not specified | Mycelium composite panels | There is a difference in water absorption rates of the different substrates | [90] |
| 65 | Pleurotus ostreatus | Sugarcane bagasse, sawdust, rice husk, calcium carbonate, rice bran | Autoclaved at 121 °C for 15 min | 25 °C, dark, 7 + 11 days, | 100 °C, 24 h | Amorphic biofoam | P. ostreatus grows best on rice husk and poorly on sawdust and sugarcane bagasse | [91] |
| 66 | Pycnoporus sanguineus | Coconut powder, with 30% wheat bran | 24, 48 and 72 h at 50, 60 and 70 °C | 20 + 13 days | 120 °C, 1 atm | Test samples (cubes) | The time and temperature of drying affect the physical properties and microstructure of the biocomposite | [92] |
| 67 | Ganoderma resinaceum | Hemp shives, soybean hulls | Not specified | 22 °C, dark, 7 days | Not applied | Block | There are changes in electrical spiking activity of mycelium bound composites in response to applied heavy loads | [93] |
| 68 | Pleurotus ostreatus, F. oxysporum | Sodium silicate | 120 °C, 15 min | 24 ± 1 °C | Pure mycelium samples | Adding 3% Si to thenutrient media for F. oxysporum increased its thermal stability. The fibers produced by P. ostreatus compared with the fibers produced by F. oxysporum and improved thermal stability (higher decomposition temperature, lower degradation rate, and higher residual weight) | [56,94] | |
| 69 | Basidiomycete (biomass–fungi material (“Grow-It-Yourself”) obtained from Ecovative Design) | Psyllium husk powder, wheat flour | Not specified | 23 °C, 3–5 days | Drying during 3D printing | Pasta to 3D printing | The ratio of psyllium husk powder to water from 1:40 to 2:40 improved 3D print quality | [95] |
| 70 | Pleurotus ostreatus, Oudemansiella radicata, Acremonium sp. | Cotton stalk, wheat bran | 120 °C, 120 kPa, 2 h, | 24 ± 1 °C, 28–37 days, RH = 50% | 24 °C, 72 h | Block | All tested MBCs presented lower thermal stability but higher residue mass compared to expanded polystyrene. The MBCs proposed in the article could be used as lightweight backfill materials | [96] |
| 71 | Fomes fomentarius | Hemp shives, rapeseed straw, poplar wood chips, rye grain | Not specified | 24 °C, 7 + 7+ 12 + 7 days | 70 °C | Brick | The LCA analysis shows an improvement in most impact categories compared to typical building bricks | [97] |
| 72 | Ganoderma lucidum (M9720) | Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) fibers, sawdust (Albizia chinensis), wheat bran | 120 °C, 60 min | 28 °C, 14 days | 70 °C, 48 h | Board | The coating is able to retain the material strength over the weathering period in all the loading scenarios | [98] |
| 73 | Pleurotusostreatus (FBCC0515), T. hirsuta (FBCC1239) | Softwood shavings, oat bran | 30 min. at 120 °C | Growth at 27 °C for 24–27 days, stored at 5 °C for 23 days | at 60, 90, or 120 °C for 3 h | Test samples (beams) | The structure of mycelium more significantly affects the physical characteristics of the mycelium composites than fungal decay modes | [99] |
| 74 | Ganoderma lucidum | Cellulose fiber, rapeseed bagasse | 40 min. at 121 °C | 30 °C, 58% RH, 21 + 7 days | Not specified | Foam (wall insulation) | Rapeseed bagasse substrate performed the best in thermal conductivity with the lowest density and good dimension stability, close to conventional EPS polymer | [100] |
| 75 | Trametes versicolor, (M9912-5LSR-2 O447A) Ganoderma resinaceum (M9726) | Beechwood, hemp fiber | 20 min. at 121 °C | 28 °C for 16 days | 70 °C, 5–10 h | Composite and pure mycelium test samples | A method for the disintegration of the mycelium based material was established | [101] |
| 76 | Ganoderma lucidum | Hemp fibers, hemp hurds, pine wood sawdust, Silvergrass (Miscanthus) shavings | 60 min at 121 °C | 26–28 °C, 70–80% RH for 14 days | 60–70 °C for 2–3 days | Boards with wood reinforcement | The dense boards reinforced with one low-density lattice are the most promising | [102] |
| 77 | Pleurotus ostreatus | Wood (not specified), hemp fibers | Pasteurization | 20–25 °C for 21 days | Prototype furniture made of rattan frame and hemp sheet, jute sheet, hemp rope | The necessity to stop the growth process is the main limitation in the manufacturing on an architectural scale | [103] | |
| 78 | Trametes hirsuta | Cellulose pulp | 45 min at 1.5 atm and 121 °C | 28 °C for 14 days | Drying | Test samples | A fungal mycelium appears in place of the cellulose microfibrils, but the size of the hyphae differs by an order of magnitude from the size of the cellulose microfibrils. | [104] |
| 79 | Pleurotus ostreatus | Oak sawdust, Wheat straw, Wheat flour | 40 min. at 121 °C | Growth in the bags (14, 21, 28 days) + growth in the formwork (14, 21, 28 days) | 2 days at 92 °C | Test samples (cubes) | Substrate mixtures with more sawdust content are harder than straw-based substrate mixtures | [105] |
| 80 | Pleurotus ostreatus, Ganoderma lucidum | beech sawdust, oak sawdust, bleached cellulose pulp, shredded cardboard, shredded newspaper, cotton fibers, soy silk fibers, wheat bran, wheat straw, burlap, clay, and sand | 45 min at 121 °C | 22–24 °C for 20 + 5 days | Dehydration at 40 °C | Test samples (bricks and beams) | Using a mycelium strain that is more resistant to the water uptake is not sufficient. Hygroscopicity of MBC is highly dependent on the type of substrate used | [106] |
| 81 | Trametes versicolor (M9912) | Hemp fibers, montmorillonite clay | 121 °C for 20 min. | 26 °C, 60% RH for 5 + 12 + days | 70 °C for 10 h | 15 mm board | The nanoclay does not significantly affect the bending behavior | [107] |
| 82 | Fomes fomentarius (GaG41) | Hemp shives, rapeseed straw | Autoclaving | 25 °C for 7 + 14 days | 60 °C for 2 days | Test samples | The impact of particle size on compression behavior was more profound for large rapeseed straw particles | [108] |
| 83 | Ganoderma lucidum | Primary: 11% mycelium spawn, 56% paper pulp, 1% xanthan gum and 32% water by weight. Secondary: sand, gravel, wood chips | Sterilized | The inoculated paper pulp was 3D printed, then the remaining space was filled by a supporting material | Drying | In a mold of 150 × 90 × 90 mm | A multi-material process of fabricating with MBC is required | [109] |
| 84 | Trametes versicolor, Ganoderma sessile, Trametes multicolor | Wood (eucalyptus, vine, apple, pine, oak) | 121 °C, 1 h | 25 °C, 4–5 weeks | 105 °C, 48 h | Dense bio composites with low water absorbance and high mechanical properties | Results indicate a correlation between fungi species, substrate, and growth protocol on final MBC characteristics (density, water absorbency, and the compressive strength) | [110] |
| 85 | Ganoderma resinaceum (GA1M) | Rose flowers and lavender straw | Sterilized | 28 °C and 220 rpm for 7 days + 25 °C, 95% RH, for 7 days | 60 °C for 8 h | Blocks 40 × 40 × 40 mm | Outer mycelium layer, fibrous internal microporous structure and integrity are appropriate | [111] |
| 86 | Ganoderma lucidum (M9726) | The 0.2–1.25 mm beechwood sawdust mixed with psyllium husk (Plantago indica), corn starch, xanthan gum, paper cellulose, guar gum, and locust bean gum | Autoclaved separately for 20 min at 121 °C (corn starch was heated to 100 °C for 40 min) | 26 °C and 60% RH, for 10 days | 70 °C for 5 h | 3D printed substrate in form of cylinder specimens (h = 38 mm, d = 100 mm) | The mycelium mitigates crack formation during printing. The core of the extrudable filament was not colonized sufficiently. To 3D print with living materials a dynamic adjustment of nozzle height during printing by scanning the previous layer and control of the deposition is needed. | [112] |
| 87 | Trametes versicolor | Yellow birch wood particles | Steam-sterilized at 121 °C for 60 min | 7-day preincubation, incubated at 28 °C, 80% RH for 8 days, melted and incubated at 28 °C, 80% RH for up to 30 days | Oven-dried for 48 h at 50 °C and hot-pressed at 180 °C for 8 min | Foams, samples with varied dimensions | In the low-density foam, the mycelia bind the particles together, with little impact on the mechanical properties. In hot-pressed panels, the mycelia strengthen the material as a network of hyphae and act as an adhesive. | [113] |