Table 2.
Cognitive function changes.
| HBOT | Control | P-value baseline | Net effect size* | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre | Post | Change | Three months P-value | Pre | Post | Change | Three months P-value | |||
| Computerized tests | ||||||||||
| N | 10 | 6 | ||||||||
| General | 90.2 ± 10.3 | 96.1 ± 10.3 | 5.9 ± 5.8 | 0.010 | 95.2 ± 7.6 | 95.0 ± 7.7 | (− 0.20) ± 9.6 | 0.960 | 0.320 | 0.60 |
| Memory | 90.75 ± 19.9 | 102.3 ± 9.8 | 11.5 ± 12.5 | 0.017 | 93.0 ± 11.8 | 96.4 ± 14.8 | 3.4 ± 8.9 | 0.390 | 0.800 | 0.48 |
| Executive function | 93.2 ± 11.0 | 92.3 ± 12.2 | (− 0.89) ± 12.5 | 0.830 | 92.8 ± 16.7 | 89.9 ± 11.2 | (− 2.9) ± 20.8 | 0.740 | 0.960 | 0.13 |
| Attention | 88.5 ± 10.7 | 95.8 ± 15.0 | 7.3 ± 17.9 | 0.230 | 93.23 ± 15.9 | 97.8 ± 8.9 | 4.6 ± 15.4 | 0.500 | 0.490 | 0.20 |
| Information processing speed | 90.2 ± 9.9 | 90.6 ± 11.0 | 0.38 ± 7.5 | 0.880 | 84.6 ± 15.1 | 86.9 ± 13.9 | 2.1 ± 13.7 | 0.770 | 0.440 | 0.11 |
| Motor skills | 88.7 ± 21.1 | 96.2 ± 17.7 | 7.6 ± 12.2 | 0.080 | 103.0 ± 9.9 | 100.8 ± 12.1 | (− 2.2) ± 7.0 | 0.470 | 0.140 | 0.59 |
| Pen and paper tests | ||||||||||
| N | 15 | 10 | ||||||||
| WISC 4 digit span | 13.3 ± 2.9 | 15.8 ± 3.2 | 2.5 ± 2.3 | 0.001 | 13.0 ± 1.9 | 13.7 ± 2.2 | 0.7 ± 1.3 | 0.169 | 0.769 | 0.89 |
| WISC 4 coding | 43.7 ± 11.9 | 47.2 ± 11.7 | 3.5 ± 7.4 | 0.086 | 34.6 ± 10.3 | 35.9 ± 12.5 | 1.3 ± 9.1 | 0.672 | 0.081 | 0.27 |
| WISC 4 symbol search | 24.1 ± 6.3 | 25.7 ± 5.0 | 1.6 ± 4.1 | 0.155 | 17.1 ± 4.8 | 21.9 ± 6.7 | 4.8 ± 4.2 | 0.010 | 0.012 | −0.76 |
| WISC 4 cancellation | 84.1 ± 17.0 | 93.7 ± 18.2 | 9.5 ± 14.2 | 0.021 | 74.2 ± 18.9 | 81.4 ± 15.7 | 7.2 ± 12.5 | 0.121 | 0.217 | 0.17 |
| NEPSY—animal sorting | 7.6 ± 2.1 | 7.1 ± 1.4 | −0.5 ± 1.9 | 0.346 | 5.1 ± 2.7 | 7.3 ± 2.7 | 1.9 ± 2.4 | 0.064 | 0.025 | −1.13 |
| RAVLT total learning | 42.5 ± 9.2 | 51.5 ± 8.2 | 9.1 ± 11.9 | 0.010 | 42.8 ± 11.8 | 48.1 ± 11.7 | 5.3 ± 8.5 | 0.097 | 0.946 | 0.35 |
| RAVLT learning rate | 7.3 ± 2.5 | 7.0 ± 1.9 | −0.3 ± 2.9 | 0.728 | 6.1 ± 2.8 | 6.8 ± 1.8 | 0.7 ± 2.7 | 0.486 | 0.323 | −0.33 |
| Phonemic fluency | 17.8 ± 7.3 | 22.8 ± 8.3 | 5.0 ± 8.1 | 0.031 | 17.9 ± 11.4 | 15.9 ± 7.6 | −2.0 ± 9.7 | 0.553 | 0.983 | 0.81 |
| Semantic fluency | 34.4 ± 8.2 | 39.3 ± 7.4 | 4.9 ± 6.9 | 0.016 | 27.3 ± 5.9 | 35.0 ± 5.5 | 7.7 ± 9.2 | 0.038 | 0.041 | −0.36 |
| TOMAL2 abstract visual memory | 17.9 ± 8.9 | 22.9 ± 9.4 | 5.0 ± 11.5 | 0.115 | 15.9 ± 7.7 | 16.3 ± 11.7 | 0.4 ± 9.2 | 0.888 | 0.601 | 0.43 |
| TOMAL2 memory for location | 11.1 ± 5.3 | 13.7 ± 6.6 | 2.5 ± 5.9 | 0.116 | 7.2 ± 3.9 | 9.6 ± 4.8 | 2.3 ± 4.2 | 0.138 | 0.078 | 0.04 |
| TOMAL2 manual imitation | 33.0 ± 10.3 | 33.3 ± 8.6 | 0.3 ± 12.4 | 0.935 | 26.6 ± 12.0 | 25.6 ± 9.7 | −1.0 ± 13.0 | 0.823 | 0.195 | 0.10 |
| Trail making test A (TMT) | 35.9 ± 8.9 | 35.5 ± 9.6 | −0.3 ± 8.9 | 0.887 | 55.9 ± 27.6 | 49.9 ± 23.8 | −6.1 ± 34.0 | 0.608 | 0.021 | 0.26 |
| Trail making test B (TMT) | 134.2 ± 77.4 | 95.7 ± 39.9 | −38.5 ± 58.3 | 0.023 | 174.2 ± 95.3 | 140.7 ± 76.2 | −33.6 ± 71.1 | 0.194 | 0.294 | −0.08 |
| Five points (1 min) | 12.3 ± 5.5 | 16.1 ± 4.8 | 3.7 ± 3.4 | 0.001 | 9.8 ± 4.2 | 11.4 ± 4.5 | 1.6 ± 1.1 | 0.003 | 0.283 | 0.75 |
| Five points (2 min) | 19.8 ± 8.5 | 23.2 ± 6.5 | 4.4 ± 4.8 | 0.004 | 15.4 ± 7.6 | 16.5 ± 6.7 | 1.1 ± 3.8 | 0.434 | 0.254 | 0.74 |
Baseline comparison of p-values test the null hypothesis of equal means of the two groups at the baseline using an unpaired t-test; three months comparison of p-values test the null hypothesis of equal means of each group pre-post intervention (HBOT/sham respectively) using a paired t-test; bold, P < 0.05, Net effect size is the subtraction of Cohen’s D effect size of the control group from the HBOT group Cohen’s D effect size; Neurotrax scores are normalized to age.