TABLE 2.
Description of Coaching Programs
| Coaching Intervention Goals | Description of Coaches | Interaction | Coaching “Material” Used to Evaluate | Study ID | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Type of Intervention Goala | Overall Goalsa Defined by Coachees or Investigators? | Details About Coaching Goalsa | How Many? | Who Were the Coaches? | Were the Coaches Trained? | In Person? | Surgery Observed? | Metrics/Assessment Tools Used to Evaluate Coachees | |
| Technical skills | Investigators | Improve technical performance of cleft palate repair (decreasing fistula incidence) | 2 | Surgeons (peer) | No | In person | Video recording of operation in OR | Audit and feedback—collects standardized outcome measurements and reports individual and peer group results. | Sitzman et al20 |
| Investigators | Improve accuracy of self-assessment of laparoscopic operative skill using the OSATS scale | 2 | Surgeons (study investigators) | Specialists in rater training and coaching techniques | In person | Video recording of operation in OR | Coachees assessed the same peer surgery video at baseline, midway, and completion of the interventionto provide a point of reference for improving their use of the OSATS scale. |
Bull et al17 | |
| Nontechnical skills | Investigators | Leadership training to improve episodic team processes (transition, action, interpersonal) and team performance outcomes (surgical delays and distractions) | 1 | Surgeon (retired) | Certified in Crew Resource Management training | In person | Observation in OR | Coded assessment of surgical delays and distractions, and interpersonal, transition, and action processes | Maynard et al18 |
| Technical and/or nontechnical skills | Coachee | 6 coachees identified nontechnical goals (teaching, leadership, communication), 3 identified technical goals (new procedure, improving efficiency), and 2 did not identify a specific focus | 8 | Surgeons (peer) | 4-hour training session, training manual, and instructional videos | In person | Video recording of operation in OR | None | Greenberg et al16 |
| Coachee | Coachees could focus on any aspect of intraoperative performance, including technical skills, nontechnical skills (situational awareness, decision making, teamwork, leadership), or intraoperative teaching skills | 23 | Surgeons (peer) | 3-hour training session and weekly emails with coaching tips | In person | Observation in OR | OSATS and NOTTS | Pradarelli et al19 | |
| Coachee | No details about individual coachee’s goals were provided. | 15 | Surgeons (peer) | 4-hour training and “refresher” on coaching principles before each session | In person | Video recording of operation in OR | Operative time and 30-day patient complications | Greenberg et al21 | |
| Physiological factors | Coachee | Improve physiological factors to enhance surgeons’ performance and improve patient outcomes | N/A | Nonsurgeon | Certified professional coach | By videoconference | None | Charting system providing patient outcomes and profiling of individual surgeons as feedback | Duclos22 |
| Wellbeing | Coachee | Improve wellbeing (Burnout, job satisfaction, professional fulfillment) | N/A | Nonsurgeon | Certified professional coach | By phone | N/A | N/A | Dyrbye23 |
aThe goal the coachee was aiming to achieve over the course of the intervention. This goal was either defined by the study investigators or the coachees themselves.
OR, operating room; OSATS, objective structured assessment of technical skills; NOTTS, nontechnical skills for surgeons.