Table 1.
Possible risk factors for early-onset cancers.
| Cancer type | Factors with a generally increasing temporal trenda | Factors with a generally stable temporal trend | Factors with a generally decreasing or variable temporal trend* |
|---|---|---|---|
| Breast cancer | Younger age at menarche106–109, oral contraceptive use109, 110, nulliparity106, 109, older age at first birth106, 109, never breast feeding106, central obesity115, physical inactivity124, alcohol125–128, fat intake130, 131 | Family history of breast cancer97, 136 | Smoking132–134 |
| CRC | Obesity33, 146–156, sedentary behaviour160–162, metabolic syndrome151, 152, 163, type 2 diabetes148, 165–167, 336, hyperlipidaemia107,109,111,114,115,124,12, diet (such as western diet, sugar-sweetened beverages, low vitamin D intake, and red meat)168–170, 172, alcohol155, 165, 170, 174, 175, inflammatory bowel disease147 | Family history of CRC147–149, 155, 170, 177, 186–189 | Smoking149, 155, 164–166, 174, 175, 177–180 |
| Endometrial cancer | Obesity193–195, 337 | Family history of any cancer194, 196 | – |
| Oesophageal adenocarcinoma | Obesity199, recurrent gastroesophageal reflux199 | – | Smoking199 |
| Head and neck cancer | Alcohol consumption204, HPV infection in areas without comprehensive vaccination coverage205, 206 | – | Smoking (snuff use) 204, 338 |
| HPV infection in areas with comprehensive vaccination coverage205, 206 | |||
| Kidney cancer | Obesity207 | – | – |
| Liver cancer | – | Family history of liver cancer218 | Chronic HBV infection216 |
| Multiple myeloma | Obesity223, 224 | – | – |
| Pancreatic cancer | Obesity225, 226, alcohol intake227 | – | Smoking227 |
| Prostate cancer | – | Family history of prostate cancer238 | – |
| Stomach cancer | – | Family history of stomach or prostate cancer249, 251 | Helicobacter pylori infection242 |
CRC, colorectal cancer.
a
Several decades of follow-up monitoring will likely be required to confirm possible effects of early-life exposures on the development of early-onset cancer. Therefore, effects of temporal trends in early-life exposure seen over the past few decades are unlikely to have appeared in the available literature on the incidence of early-onset cancer.