Table 2.

Subgroup analysis of renal function.

Subgroup by	No. of trials	No. of patients	Probiotics	Prebiotics	Synbiotics
Changes of creatinine
Follow-up period
<3 months	7	288	−0.14 (−1.68, 1.40)	−0.77 (−2.30, 0.75)	0.29 (−0.72, 1.31)
≥3 months	6	285	−0.29 (−0.41, −0.17)*	0.00 (−0.19, 0.20)	–
Target population
Dialysis patients	7	278	−0.31 (−2.98, 2.28)	−0.47 (−2.38, 1.44)	1.02 (−1.15, 3.19)
Non-dialysis patients	6	295	−0.15 (−0.20, −0.09)*	0.00 (−0.19, 0.19)	0.04 (−0.17, 0.26)
Changes of eGFR
Follow-up period
<3 months	4	163	12.70 (6.70, 18.70)*†	–	1.13 (−1.24, 3.51)
≥3 months	6	307	2.19 (−2.63, 7.02)	0.00 (−8.64, 8.64)	1.00 (−8.95, 10.95)
Target population
Dialysis patients	2	120	0.49 (−0.27, 1.25)	–	–
Non-dialysis patients	8	350	3.65 (−1.84, 9.13)	0.00 (−8.34, 8.34)	1.82 (−3.52, 7.16)

^*P < 0.05 compared with placebo,

^†P < 0.05 compared with synbiotics.

eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate.