MXene/RSF hydrogels with ES potential accelerated bone regeneration. (A) Procedure for the establishment of the calvarial defect model in SD rats. (B) Cranial bone regeneration at 6 and 12 weeks after implantation presented by micro-CT. (C–F) BV/TV, Tb.Sp, Tb.Th, and Tb.N results calculated based on micro-CT. (G) Representative images of 3D reconstruction of the blood vessels at 12 weeks post-implantation. **P < 0.01, *P < 0.05, n = 3.