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. 2021 Nov 8;6:297. [Version 1] doi: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.17228.1

Table 2. Prevalence of informal payments reported in cross-sectional studies.

Author & country Data
collection
year
Sample size and study
population
Metric Prevalence
Papers based on Afrobarometer surveys
Pring & Vrushi 20 ; 35 African
countries
2016–2018 47,000 households The proportion that gave a gift/paid a bribe/did a favor to get services
at a public health center or clinic in the past 12 months
1.0–50.0%
mean:14.0%
Kankeu & Ventelou 13 ; 33 African
countries
2011–2013


2005–2006
51,605 households (33
countries)

25,397 households (18
countries)
The proportion that paid a bribe, gave a gift or did a favor to
government officials to get treatment at a local health clinic or
hospital in the past 12 months
0.4-51.3%



2.9-47.8%
Studies based on patient/household reports
Masiye et al. 48 ; Zambia 2018 1900 patients The proportion that made any payments for healthcare services
received at public primary health facilities on the survey day
6.2%
Oduor 51 ; Kenya 2012 183 households The proportion that paid informal payments at public health facilities 10.0% (inpatient care)
8.0% (outpatient care)
Kruk et al. 35 ; Tanzania 2007 1322 women The proportion that paid provider payments for free facility delivery
services at government health facilities within the 5 years before the
survey
84.6% (dispensary)
35.7% (health centers)
30.0% (hospitals)
Lindkvist 41 ; Tanzania 2007 3494 patients The proportion that reported that healthcare workers at public and
faith-based facilities accept informal payments
12.0%
Kankeu et al. 37 ; Cameroon 2006–2007 1637 HIV patients The proportion that made informal payments for consultation with a
doctor at public and private facilities on the survey day
3.1%
Paredes-Solís et al. 31 ; Uganda and
South Africa
1998

2003
18,412 households (Uganda)

5,490 households (South
Africa)
The proportion that made payments directly to healthcare workers at
government health facilities
28.0%


1.0%
Hunt 2010 39 ; Uganda 2002 12,000 households The proportion that had paid a bribe at a public or private health
facility in the past three months
17.0% (public sector)

11.0% (private sector)
Studies based on health workers reports
Binyaruka et al ;Tanzania 49 2019 432 health workers The proportion that had ever asked for/been given informal payment/
bribe from clients at public primary care facilities
27.1%
Maini et al. 46 ; Democratic Republic
of Congo (DRC)
2014 406 nurses The proportion that received informal payments/gifts from patients at
public primary care facilities in the last month
16.8%
Bertone & Lagarde 47 ; Sierra Leone 2013–2014 266 health workers The proportion that received gifts and payments from patients in the
past month at public primary care facilities
74.0%
Akwataghibe et al. 38 ; Nigeria not stated 69 healthcare workers The proportion that accepted gifts and informal payments from
patients at public health facilities in exchange for priority treatment
33.4%