Table 3.
Biological effects of Spirulina.
| In vitro | Species | Dose/duration | Mechanism of action | Citation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Probiotic activity | Spirulina platensis | NI | Oligosaccharides from spirulina promoted the abundance, diversity, and composition of gut microbiota, especially stimulating the growth of Bacteroides, Escherichia-Shigella, Megamonas, Megasphaera, Blautia, Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. In addition, by maintaining intestinal homeostasis, oligosaccharides promote the development of beneficial microbes, defend the microbiota against pathogens, and protect gastrointestinal function and immunoregulation. | Cai et al. (2022) |
| Immunostimulatory and antitumor activity | Spirulina platensis | 16.25–50 μg/mL | Heteropolysaccharides from spirulina significantly inhibited the growth of A549 lung cancer cells, immune-enhancing activity on macrophages by promoting the proliferation and phagocytosis capacity of cells and stimulating the secretion of NO, IL-1β, and TNF-α without toxicity. | Cai et al. (2022b) |
| Pulmonary anticancer effect | Spirulina platensis | 500 μg/mL per 24 h | Spirulina damages cancer cells affecting the cell cycle and forcing their apoptosis through biochemical changes. | Tajvidi et al. (2021) |
| Antithrombotic properties | Spirulina maxima | NI | Spirulina polysaccharide extracts, protein extracts (especially phycocyanobilin), and lipid extracts inhibit platelet-activating factor (PAF) and thrombin. | Koukouraki et al. (2020) |
| In vivo | Species | Dose/duration | Mechanism of action | Citation |
| Growth performance | Spirulina platensis | 10 g/kg Spirulina + 0.1 mg/kg Se-SP | Diets fed with Spirulina and Se-SP significantly increased body weight and the production efficiency factor (313.50) of broilers. | Abdel-Moneim et al. (2022) |
| Antioxidant activity | The polyunsaturated fatty acids, phycocyanin, polyphenols, and β-Carotene present in spirulina can increase the antioxidant capacity of birds reared under thermal stress conditions. | |||
| Improve humoral immunity | The dietary treatments of Spirulina and Se-SP contribute to alleviating the deleterious effect of thermal stress on humoral immunity by reducing the serum of immunoglobulin IgA, IgM, IgG, and antibodies Newcastle disease, avian influenza virus, and infectious bursal disease. | |||
| Antimicrobial activity | Spirulina exhibited dose-dependent antimicrobial activities against ileal counts of total bacterial, total molds and yeast, coliform, E. coli, Salmonella spp., and Enterococcus spp. Thus, reducing the bacterial and fungal load of chickens. | |||
| Dietary and ileal microbial potential | The bioactive compounds of spirulina have a probiotic effect capable of maintaining the homeostasis of the intestinal microbiota and controlling the colonization of pathogens in the chicken intestine. | |||
| Hypoglycemic activity and bone protection | Spirulina spp. | 300 mg/kg per 12 weeks | The reduction of the glucose level caused by chromium present in spirulina can prevent osteocytosis apoptosis and improve osteoblast differentiation. Thus, increasing the number of osteocytes and osteoblasts and protecting bones. | Ekeuku et al. (2021) |
| Wound healing potential | Spirulina platensis | NI | The topical supplementation with Spirulina demonstrated marked epithelization and complete connective tissue remodeling. These processes occur by improving the wound healing process by increasing angiogenesis and collagen deposition. Besides, the level of VEGF expression within the endothelial cells of the blood capillaries or fibroblastic cells was markedly expressed in spirulina treatment within the mature granulation tissue. | Elbialy et al. (2021) |
| Antioxidant activity | Spirulina platensis | 500 and 1000 mg/kg per 30 days | The C-phycocyanin obtained from spirulina at 500 mg/kg, and 1000 mg/kg resulted in a significant enhancement of serum SOD activity higher than that of vitamin E. | Grover et al. (2021) |
| Immunomodulatory property | The C-phycocyanin suppresses the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and TNF- α. In addition, the C-phycocyanin enhances the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10, in a concentration-dependent manner. | |||
| Neuroprotective effects | Spirulina platensis | 180 mg/kg | Spirulina regulates the hyperactive dopaminergic system by antioxidant effects. Consequently, it reduces the hyperactive motor deficits caused due to psychotic symptoms induced by dizocilpine. | Haider et al. (2021) |
| Cognitive enhancement | Spirulina platensis | 1–2 % (w/w) per 16 weeks | Spirulina inhibited Aβ accumulation, tau-hyperphosphorylation, and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus. | Zhou et al. (2021) |
| Protection against oxidative damage | Spirulina platensis | 400 mg/kg during the gestation and lactation period | After protein malnutrition, cellular changes in the hippocampus are partially restored after maternal spirulina protein supplementation. In addition, it reduced the astrocytes and activation of microglia, and increased cerebral cortical thickness, which is a better morphology of neuronal cells. | Sinha et al. (2020b) |
| Neuroprotective effects and cognitive enhancement | Spirulina platensis | 400 mg/kg during the gestation and lactation period | Spirulina protein restores neurocognitive outcomes by reducing microglial activation, displacing the microglial phenotype to the neuroprotective profile, and promoting a positive increase in body and brain weight, maturation of vestibulocerebellar, tactile, and proprioceptive systems. | Sinha et al. (2020a) |
| Improves memory deficit | Spirulina platensis | 2 mg/kg per 14 days | Spirulina improves scopolamine induced-memory deficit by inhibiting oxidative stress. This oxidative stress inhibition occurs by reducing malondialdehyde levels. | Ghanbari et al. (2019) |
| Hypolipidemic effect | Spirulina maxima | 4.5 g/d per 45 days | Spirulina supplementation promoted linear reduction of total cholesterol, triglycerides, body fat, and body mass index. | Hernández-Lepe et al. (2019) |
Note: NI – Not informed. Se: Selenium, NO: nitric oxide, IL-6: interleukin 6, IL-1β: interleukin-1β, TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α, MDA: the content of malondialdehyde, SOD: superoxide dismutase, GSH-Px: glutathione peroxidase, LPS: lipopolysaccharide, VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor, SOD: Superoxide Dismutase.