Table 1.
Relationship between sociodemographic variables and HLQ scores.
| Variable | 1. Feeling Understood and Supported by Healthcare Providers | 2. Having Sufficient Information to Manage My Own Health | 3. Actively Managing My Health | 4. Social Support for Health | 5. Appraisal of Health Information | 6. Ability to Actively Engage with Healthcare Providers | 7. Navigating the Healthcare System | 8. Ability to Find Good Health Information | 9. Understands Health Information Enough to Know What to Do |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age group | |||||||||
| <65 years | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.11 (0.59) n = 81 |
2.88 (0.53) n = 81 |
2.83 (0.52) n = 81 |
3.07 (0.54) n = 81 |
2.79 (0.60) n = 81 |
3.84 (0.62) n = 81 |
3.60 (0.65) n = 81 |
3.55 (0.64) n = 81 |
4.00 (0.57) n = 81 |
| ≥65 years | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.09 (0.52) n = 85 |
2.86 (0.54) n = 85 |
2.95 (0.47) n = 85 |
3.12 (0.49) n = 85 |
2.29 (0.74) n = 85 |
3.77 (0.72) n = 85 |
3.41 (0.83) n = 85 |
2.92 (0.98) n = 85 |
3.64 (0.69) n = 85 |
| t-test | F = 0.645; p = 0.844 | F = 0.006; p = 0.859 | F = 3.034; p = 0.133 | F = 1.310; p = 0.478 | F = 9.109; p = 0.000 | F = 1.439; p = 0.470 | F = 4.425; 164; p = 0.117 | F = 17.304; p = 0.000 | F = 4.287; p = 0.000 |
| Effect Size (95% CI) |
−0.04 (−0.34, 0.27) |
−0.04 (−0.34, 0.27) |
0.24 (−0.06, 0.55) |
0.10 (−0.21, 0.40) |
−0.74 (−1.06, −0.43) |
−0.10 (−0.41, 0.20) |
−0.25 (−0.56, 0.05) |
−0.75 (−1.08, −0.45) |
−0.56 (−0.89, −0.26) |
| Sex | |||||||||
| Male | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.13 (0.50) n = 75 |
2.91 (0.54) n = 75 |
2.85 (0.51) n = 75 |
3.14 (0.49) n = 75 |
2.59 (0.73) n = 75 |
3.88 (0.60) n = 75 |
3.57 (0.70) n = 75 |
3.20 (0.85) n = 75 |
3.85 (0.64) n = 75 |
| Female | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.07 (0.59) n = 91 |
2.84 (0.53) n = 91 |
2.92 (0.49) n = 91 |
3.06 (0.53) n = 91 |
2.48 (0.71) n = 91 |
3.75 (0.72) n = 91 |
3.44 (0.79) n = 91 |
3.25 (0.92) n = 91 |
3.79 (0.68) n = 91 |
| t-test | F = 0.456; p = 0.532 | F = 0.011; p = 0.409 | F = 0.734; p = 0.371 | F = 0.196; p = 0.338 | F = 0.107; p = 0.318 | F = 3.475; p = 0.225 | F = 1.024; p = 0.273 | F = 0.916; p = 0.718 | F = 0.253; p = 0.580 |
| Effect Size (95% CI) |
−0.11 (−0.42, 0.20) |
−0.13 (−0.44, 0.18) |
0.14 (−0.17, 0.45) |
−0.16 (−0.47, 0.15) |
−0.15 (−0.46, 0.15) |
−0.19 (−0.50, 0.11) |
−0.17 (−0.48, 0.13) |
0.06 (−0.25, 0.36) |
−0.09 (−0.40, 0.22) |
| Occupation | |||||||||
| Employed | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.08 (0.63) n = 61 |
2.89 (0.50) n = 61 |
2.79 (0.53) n = 61 |
3.10 (0.52) n = 61 |
2.74 (0.60) n = 61 |
3.87 (0.62) n = 61 |
3.59 (0.67) n = 61 |
3.62 (0.57) n = 61 |
4.05 (0.54) n = 61 |
| Unemployed | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.10 (0.50) n = 103 |
2.85 (0.56) n = 103 |
2.95 (0.47) n = 103 |
3.09 (0.51) n = 103 |
2.40 (0.76) n = 103 |
3.75 (0.70) n = 103 |
3.44 (0.79) n = 103 |
2.99 (0.96) n = 103 |
3.67 (0.69) n = 103 |
| t-test | F = 2.207; p = 0.798 | F = 0.296; p = 0.722 | F = 2.286; p = 0.052 | F = 0.292; p = 0.912 | F = 7.845; p = 0.003 | F = 0.816; p = 0.294 | F = 2.531; p = 0.208 |
F = 17.189; p = 0.000 | F = 3.249; p = 0.000 |
| Effect Size (95% CI) |
0.04 (−0.28, 0.36) |
−0.07 (−0.39, 0.24) |
0.32 (0.01, 0.65) |
−0.02 (−0.34, 0.30) |
−0.48 (−0.81, −0.16) |
−0.18 (−0.50, 0.14) |
−0.20 (−0.52, 0.12) |
−0.75 (−1.09, −0.43) |
−0.59 (−0.93, −0.27) |
| Studies | |||||||||
| Unfinished secondary education | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.12 (0.53) n = 66 |
2.88 (0.56) n = 66 |
2.91 (0.52) n = 66 |
3.19 (0.48) n = 66 |
2.18 (0.79) n = 66 |
3.78 (0.75) n = 66 |
3.43 (0.86) n = 66 |
2.85 (1.05) n = 66 |
3.61 (0.75) n = 66 |
| Completed secondary education | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.09 (0.56) n = 100 |
2.86 (0.51) n = 100 |
2.88 (0.48) n = 100 |
3.04 (0.50) n = 100 |
2.76 (0.57) n = 100 |
3.83 (0.62) n = 100 |
3.55 (0.67) n = 100 |
3.48 (0.65) n = 100 |
3.95 (0.55) n = 100 |
| t-test | F = 0.015; p = 0.718 | F = 0.157; p = 0.790 | F = 0.041; p = 0.723 | F = 0.345; p = 0.057 | F = 16.794; p = 0.000 | F = 3.608; p = 0.643 | F = 4.418; p = 0.346 |
F = 28.312; p = 0.000 | F = 9.330; p = 0.001 |
| Effect Size (95% CI) |
−0.05 (−0.37, 0.26) |
−0.04 (−0.35, 0.28) |
−0.06 (−0.37, 0.25) |
−0.30 (−0.62, 0.01) |
0.87 (0.55, 1.21) |
0.07 (−0.24, 0.39) |
0.16 (−0.15, 0.47) |
0.75 (0.44, 1.09) |
0.53 (0.22, 0.86) |
| Perceived health status | |||||||||
| Very bad, bad, fair | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.04 (0.45) n = 65 |
2.82 (0.47) n = 65 |
2.74 (0.49) n = 65 |
2.99 (0.49) n = 65 |
2.33 (0.70) n = 65 |
3.62 (0.63) n = 65 |
3.32 (0.67) n = 65 |
2.98 (0.91) n = 65 |
3.62 (0.64) n = 65 |
| Good, very good | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.14 (0.60) n = 101 |
2.90 (0.57) n = 101 |
2.99 (0.48) n = 101 |
3.17 (0.51) n = 101 |
2.66 (0.70) n = 101 |
3.93 (0.68) n = 101 |
3.62 (0.78) n = 101 |
3.39 (0.84) n = 101 |
3.94 (0.64) n = 101 |
| t-test | F = 6.662; p = 0.202 | F = 2.575; p = 0.361 | F = 1.263; p = 0.001 | F = 0.401; p = 0.024 | F = 0.181; p = 0.004 | F = 0.488; p = 0.004 | F = 1.195; p = 0.012 |
F = 0.553; p = 0.003 | F = 0.050; p = 0.002 |
| Effect Size (95% CI) |
0.18 (−0.13, 0.50) |
0.15 (−0.16, 0.47) |
0.51 (0.20, 0.84) |
0.36 (0.05, 0.68) |
0.47 (0.16, 0.79) |
0.47 (0.16, 0.79) |
0.40 (0.09, 0.73) |
0.47 (0.16, 0.79) |
0.50 (0.19, 0.82) |
| Birth country | |||||||||
| Spain | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.12 (0.54) n = 151 |
2.89 (0.52) n = 151 |
2.89 (0.50) n = 151 |
3.13 (0.49) n = 151 |
2.51 (0.74) n = 151 |
3.84 (0.67) n = 151 |
3.51 (0.76) n = 151 |
3.20 (0.90) n = 151 |
3.81 (0.67) n = 151 |
| Foreign country | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 2.90 (0.63) n = 15 |
2.67 (0.61) n = 15 |
2.93 (0.53) n = 15 |
2.74 (0.56) n = 15 |
2.76 (0.48) n = 15 |
3.43 (0.55) n = 15 |
3.39 (0.64) n = 15 |
3.52 (0.61) n = 15 |
3.89 (0.48) n = 15 |
| t-test | F = 0.022; p = 0.143 | F = 0.591; p = 0.123 | F = 0.009; p = 0.738 | F = 0.274; p = 0.005 | F = 5.538; p = 0.081 | F = 0.015; p = 0.022 | F = 0.495; p = 0.555 |
F = 3.207; p = 0.180 | F = 2.135; p = 0.643 |
| Effect Size (95% CI) |
−0.40 (−0.94, 0.13) |
−0.41 (−0.96, 0.12) |
0.08 (−0.45, 0.61) |
−0.78 (−1.33, −0.25) |
0.34 (−0.19, 0.89) |
−0.62 (−1.16, −0.09) |
−0.16 (−0.70, 0.37) |
0.36 (−0.17, 0.90) |
0.12 (−0.41, 0.66) |
| Marital status | |||||||||
| Single, separated, widower | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.05 (0.58) n = 78 |
2.83 (0.54) n = 78 |
2.84 (0.57) n = 78 |
3.01 (0.55) n = 78 |
2.48 (0.72) n = 78 |
3.75 (0.64) n = 78 |
3.38 (0.83) n = 78 |
3.20 (0.89) n = 78 |
3.74 (0.69) n = 78 |
| Married | |||||||||
| Mean (SD) | 3.14 (0.52) n = 88 |
2.90 (0.53) n = 88 |
2.94 (0.42) n = 88 |
3.17 (0.46) n = 88 |
2.57 (0.72) n = 88 |
3.86 (0.70) n = 88 |
3.61 (0.66) n = 88 |
3.25 (0.89) n = 88 |
3.88 (0.63) n = 88 |
| t-test | F = 0.136; p = 0.267 | F = 0.000; p = 0.365 | F = 8.877; p = 0.184 | F = 2.104; p = 0.044 | F = 0.100; p = 0.397 | F = 1.147; p = 0.292 | F = 2.681; p = 0.051 |
F = 0.037; p = 0.748 | F = 0.685; p = 0.190 |
| Effect Size (95% CI) |
0.16 (−0.14, 0.47) |
0.13 (−0.18, 0.44) |
0.20 (−0.10, 0.51) |
0.14 (−0.17, 0.45) |
0.12 (−0.18, 0.43) |
0.16 (−0.14, 0.47) |
0.31 (0.00, 0.62) |
0.06 (−0.25, 0.36) |
0.21 (−0.09, 0.52) |
Health literacy questionnaire (HLQ), standard deviation (SD), confidence interval (CI). Results in bold are significantly different to one another (p < 0.05); Student t-test); Effect size calculated using Cohen’s d for standardised difference in means. Interpretation of ES: “small” >0.20−0.50 SD, “medium” 0.50−0.80 SD, and “large” >0.80 SD.