Table A1.
Summary of selected studies.
| ID | Ref. | Year | NP | Age | M | SD | G (M–F) | ST | LSR [km] | TD | MT | Type of Device—Distraction Task |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | [90] | 2010 | 45 | NR | 20.03 | 1.58 | 16–29 | fixed-based | 42.67 | C | DM | HF—conversation |
| 2 | [76] | 2020 | 78 | NR | 23.58 | 1.55, 1.96, 2.14, 3.36 | NR | 2 DOF | NR | C | RT | HF—conversation |
| 3 | [131] | 2006 | 36 | 20–53 | 22.5 | NR | NR | fixed-based | 8.69 | C | TV, DM, AL, RT | HF—conversation |
| 4 | [140] | 2011 | 30 | 24–34 | NR | NR | 15–15 | fixed-based | 3.3 + 7.5 + 10.3 | C, M | RT | HH, HF, HFV—answering the call |
| 5 | [77] | 2017 | 25 | NR | 62.25 | 7.2, 7.7 | 8/5, 7/5 | fixed-based | 2.1 | C | RT, DM | HH—conversation with passenger/at phone |
| 6 | [142] | 2009 | 30 | 18–50 | 34 | 11 | 15–15 | fixed-based | 18 | V, C | AL | HF—answerphone, receive calls |
| 7 | [141] | 2018 | 33 | 23–35 | 27.5 | 4.1 | 17–16 | fixed-based | 3.3 + 7.5 + 10.3 | V, C + RC | RT | HH, HF, HFV—answer a phone call while driving |
| 8 | [91] | 2009 | 119 | 17–59 | 27.65 | 10.55 | 56–61 | fixed-based | 25.3 | C | RT, HA | HF—conversation with in-car passengers, hands-free cell phones, and remote passengers who could see the driver’s current driving situation |
| 9 | [143] | 2017 | 100 | <30, 30–50, >50 | 24.14, 36.05, 54.67 | 2.79, 5.43, 5.04 | 87–13 | fixed-based | 3.5 | V, C | DM | HH—simple conversation, complex conversation, simple texting, and complex texting tasks |
| 10 | [104] | 2017 | 100 | <30, 30–50, >51 | 24.14, 36.05, 54.68 | 2.79, 5.43, 5.05 | 87–13 | fixed-based | 3.5 | V, C + RC, T | RT | HH—simple conversation, complex conversation, simple texting, and complex texting tasks |
| 11 | [105] | 2017b | 100 | <30, 30–50, >52 | 24.14, 36.05, 54.69 | 2.79, 5.43, 5.06 | 87–13 | fixed-based | 3.5 | V, C + A, G | DM, AP | HH—simple conversation, complex conversation, simple texting, and complex texting tasks |
| 12 | [68] | 2019 | 49 | NR | 22.12, 37.62 | 2.45, 7.22 | 22–3, 25–0 | fixed-based | 3.5 | V, C + A, E | DM | HH—simple conversation, complex conversation, simple texting, and complex texting tasks |
| 13 | [106] | 2008 | 60 | NR | NR | NR | NR | fixed-based | 28.9 | C + E | DM, RT | HF—conversation |
| 14 | [62] | 2008 | 14 | 18–22 | NR | NR | fixed-based | NR | C, M | DM | HH—cell phone conversation, back seat conversation, text message, Ipod manipulation | |
| 15 | [119] | 2008 | 96 | 18–49 | 20 | NR | 49–47 | fixed-based | 38.6 | C | DM | HF—conversation with passengers in a vehicle and conversation on a cell phone |
| 16 | [145] | 2019 | 24 | 19–31 | 24.79 | 2.97 | fixed-based | NR | C + RC | HA | HF—a mock cell phone task (HF) | |
| 17 | [26] | 2016 | 101 | 18–57 | 27.8 | 8.3 | 68.33 | fixed-based | NR | C, V, M | DM | HH—using a hand-held cell-phone, texting, eating |
| 18 | [136] | 2013 | 20 | 18–41 | 24.4 | 6.3 | 12.8 | 6 DOF | 7 | V | DM, RT | HF—conversation |
| 19 | [120] | 2014 | 24 | NR | 20.4 | 1.7 | fixed-based | 19.3 | V, C | TV, DM | HF—conversation in the car and talking on a hands-free cell phone | |
| 20 | [125] | 2003 | 63 | 25–66, 8–18 | NR | NR | 32–31 | 6 DOF | NR | V, M + A | DM | HH, HF—answer incoming calls, dialing, retrieve a voicemail message from a specific person using either the hand-held or hands-free phone |
| 21 | [116] | 2016 | 69 | 16–7, 18–25, 30–45, 50–60 | NR | NR | 20–0, 9–9, 9–8, 8–6 | 13 DOF | NR | V, C + A, G | AL | HH—conversation |
| 22 | [118] | 2016 | 32 | 18–26 | 21.5 | 1.99 | 16–16 | 6 DOF | NR | C, M | Al | HF, HH—conversation |
| 23 | [107] | 2014 | 32 | 21.47 | 21.47 | 2.0 | 16–16 | 6 DOF | 7 | C | RT | HF, HH—conversation |
| 24 | [109] | 2013 | 27 | 18–29 | 21.04 | 6.00 | 12.15 | fixed-based | 6.09 | C, Au | TV, DM | HH—phone ringing |
| 25 | [98] | 2006 | 31 | 18–25, 30–45, 60–75 | 21, 37, 66 | NR | NR | 3 DOF | 6 | C, V, M + A | DM, HA | HF—operating the vehicle entertainment system and conducting a simulated hands-free mobile phone conversation |
| 26 | [121] | 2015 | 40 | 20–52 | 32.5 | NR | 11.29 | fixed-based | NR | V, C | OM | HH—touching the touch-screen telephone menu to a certain song, talking with laboratory assistant, answering a telephone via Bluetooth headset, and finding the navigation system from Ipad4 compute |
| 27 | [78] | 2009 | 60 | <17, 18–19, 20–21, >22 | NR | NR | 13.47 | fixed-based | NR | C | DM, TV | HF—cell phone communication |
| 28 | [92] | 2010 | 35 | 20–53 | 26.67 | 9.91 | 6.29 | fixed-based | 8.7 | C | DM, RT, TV, AL | HF—cell phone conversation |
| 29 | [69] | 2007 | 49 | 14–16, 21–52 | 14.68, 29.0 | 0.56, 8.94 | 12–12, 12–13 | fixed-based | NR | C + A | TV, AL | HF—cell phone conversation |
| 30 | [52] | 2015 | 16 | 27–59 | 37.8 | 10 | 10.6 | fixed-based | 42 | C, M | DM | HH—phone conversation |
| 31 | [89] | 2015 | 20 | 27–59 | 37.65 | 9.75 | 14.6 | fixed-based | 10 + 9 | V, M, C | DM, OM | HH—conversation, texting, destination entry, following route guidance |
| 32 | [97] | 2019 | 48 | 19.2, 19.5 | 19.2, 19.5 | 0.97, 0.93 | NR | fixed-based | NR | C, V | HA | HH—cell phone conversation, coin change task |
| 33 | [111] | 2004 | 80 | 18–27 | 20.61 | NR | 46.34 | fixed-based | 4 | C | DM, RT | HF—conversation with passenger and conversation on HF phone |
| 34 | [95] | 2012 | 20 | 23–30 | 26.20 | 2.58 | 10.10 | fixed-based | NR | C, M | TV, DM, AL, RT | HF—conversation, HF cognitive demanding conversation, texting |
| 35 | [132] | 2019 | 37 | 31–40 | 34.5 | 3.1 | 11–7, 10–9 | 1 DOF | 4 | C | DM, RT | HF, HH—conversation |
| 36 | [101] | 2016 | 42 | 30–40 | 35 | 3 | 21.21 | 1 DOF | 5 | C + G | RT | HF, HH—conversation |
| 37 | [144] | 2006 | 20 | 21–29 | 25.9 | 2.3 | NR | fixed-based | NR | C | DM, RT, TV | HF—conversation |
| 38 | [71] | 2011 | 48 | NR | 23.10, 69.21 | 1.54, 3.05 | 12–12, 20–4 | fixed-based | NR | C | RT, DM | HF—conversation |
| 39 | [122] | 2011 | 33 | NR | 24.3 | 6.8 | 17.16 | fixed-based | NR | C, V | OM | HF—conversation with a passenger vs. via hands-free phone |
| 40 | [138] | 2009 | 16 | 19–49 | 26.2 | 9.1 | 7, 9 | 2 DOF | NR | C, M, Au + tactile | RT | HF—simple (scripted demographic and personal questions), complex (mental math and categorization questions) |
| 41 | [146] | 2007 | 38 | 18–59 | 26.4 | NR | 20.18 | fixed-based | NR | V | RT | HF—phone conversation |
| 42 | [149] | 2018 | 64 | 22–60 | 33 | 10 | 34, 30 | 6 DOF | NR | V, C | RT | HH—reading, texting, video, social media, gaming, phoning, music |
| 43 | [99] | 2020 | 35 | 18–29 | 22.9 | 4.0 | 22, 13 | 6 DOF | 10 | V, M, C + RC | DM | HF, HH—calling, texting vs. road environment |
| 44 | [55] | 2018 | 35 | 18–29 | 22.9 | 4.0 | 22, 13 | 6 DOF | 10 | V, M, C | DM, TV | HF—conversation and visual-manual interaction task |
| 45 | [135] | 2017 | 32 | 18–26 | 21.5 | 1.99 | 16, 16 | 6 DOF | NR | M, C | DM | HF, HH—conversation |
| 46 | [112] | 2017 | 32 | 18–26 | 21.8 | 1.9 | 16.16 | 6 DOF | NR | M, C + RC | DM | HF, HH—conversation |
| 47 | [113] | 2019 | 35 | 18–29 | 22.9 | 4.0 | 22, 13 | 6 DOF | NR | V, M, C | OM | HH—ring a doctor and cancel an appointment, text a friend and tell him/her that the participant will be arriving 10 min late, share the doctor’s phone number with a friend, and take a ‘selfie’ |
| 48 | [123] | 2018 | 95 | 18–34, 35–54, 55–75 | NR | NR | 47.48 | fixed-based | 2.1 + 1.7 | C, V + A, G, E, T | DM | HH—conversation with passenger, cell phone use |
| 49 | [102] | 2017 | 87 | 18–34, 35–54, 55–76 | NR | NR | NR | fixed-based | 2.1 + 1.7 | V, C + A, T | DM, RT | HH—conversation with passenger, mobile phone |
| 50 | [103] | 2019 | 95 | 18–34, 35–54, 55–77 | 28, 47, 64 | 3.6, 4.8, 6.5 | 47, 48 | fixed-based | 2.1 + 1.7 | C, V + A, G, E, T | DM, TV, RT | HH—conversation with passenger, mobile phone |
| 51 | [124] | 2019 | 95 | 18–34, 35–55, 55+ | NR | NR | 47.48 | fixed-based | 2.1 + 1.7 | C, V + A, G, T | DM, TV, RT | HH—conversation with passenger, cell phone use |
| 52 | [25] | 2019 | 90 | NR | NR | NR | 73.17 | fixed-based | 3.6 | C, V | DM, RT, TV | HH—using the mobile phone, drinking and text messaging |
| 53 | [63] | 2016 | 140 | NR | 69.0, 64.5 | 7.1, 7.9 | 62–47, 20.11 | fixed-based | 2.1 + 1.7 | C, V + T | RT | HH—conversation with passenger vs mobile phone use |
| 54 | [150] | 2018 | 51 | 21–49 | 27 | 5.7 | 36.15 | fixed-based | 10.4 | C | RT, AL | HH—phone conversation |
| 55 | [154] | 2020 | 36 | 21–54 | 33.3 | 8.6 | 21–15 | fixed-based | 4.8 | V, Au | DM, RT | HF—features presented via a mobile phone mounted near the line of sight |
| 56 | [153] | 2004 | 24 | 18–32 | 20.4 | NR | 12.12 | fixed-based | NR | C | DM, RT, OM | HF—phone conversation |
| 57 | [127] | 2008 | 45 | NR | 22.3 | NR | 45–0 | 3 DOF | NR | C | DM, RT, OM | HF—respond to instructions, HF conversation |
| 58 | [66] | 2014 | 53 | NR | NR | NR | NR | fixed-based | NR | C | RT | HF—phone conversation |
| 59 | [148] | 2008 | 32 | 17–21 | 19.0, 19.3 | NR | 7.9 | fixed-based | NR | V, M | DM, TV, RT | HH—manipulating controls of a radio/tape deck and dialing a hand-held cellular phone |
| 60 | [83] | 2010 | 60 | NR | 20.56, 20.65 | 2.18, 1.89 | 14–9, 20–15 | fixed-based | 56.3 | C | TV | HF—phone conversation |
| 61 | [72] | 2006 | 35 | 19–23, 51–66 | 20.67, 56.82 | 0.91, 4.5 | 10–8, 7–10 | fixed-based | NR | C + A | DM, OM | HF—a simulated cellular telephone conversation (easy task), two paragraphs from the Wechsler Memory Scale (easy task), segments of the Continuous Performance Task (hard task), and Multiple Interference Task (hard task) |
| 62 | [64] | 2012 | 42 | NR | NR | NR | 15–9, 12–6 | fixed-based | 15.14 | C, Au | RT | HF—processing of a single spoken word |
| 63 | [93] | 2015 | 32 | 21.47 | 21.47 | 1.98 | 16.16 | 6 DOF | 7 | C | DM | HH, HF conversation |
| 64 | [80] | 2016 | 100 | 18–41 | 21.8 | NR | 33–67 | fixed-based | 8.2 | C | TV | HF phone conversation |
| 65 | [155] | 2021 | 45 | NR | 62.8, 24.3 | 7.2, 4.8 | 30–0, 11–4 | fixed-based | NR | V, P (postural − physic) + A | DM, OM | HH—texting on a smartphone while sitting on a stable or unstable surface |
| 66 | [151] | 2014 | 40 | NR | 20.47 | 4.76 | 24, 16 | fixed-based | 8.04 | V, M | DM, RT | HH—use Google Glass or a smartphone-based messaging interface |
| 67 | [129] | 2010 | 69 | 17–22 | 19.03 | 0.69 | 25–44 | fixed-based | NR | C | OM | HH—phone conversation |
| 68 | [27] | 2019 | 50 | 20–60 | 31 | NR | 32–18 | fixed-based | 5 | C, V, Au + A | DM, RT | HH, HF—conversation |
| 69 | [152] | 2020 | 123 | 18–64 | 34.46 | 13.04 | 62.61 | fixed-based | 26.4 | V, Au | DM, OM | HH—audio warning, flashing display |
| 70 | [126] | 2016 | 50 | 24–54 | 39.8 | 8.4 | 49, 1 | fixed-based | 36.2 | C, M, V | TV, DM, OM | HH—cell phone conversation, text message interaction, emailing interaction |
| 71 | [74] | 2013 | 75 | 16–18, 19–25 | 17.67, 23.39 | 1.18, 1.81 | 11–19, 23–22 | fixed-based | 38.6 | C, M + T | TV, DM | HH—cell phone, texting |
| 72 | [114] | 2017 | 32 | 18–25 | 20.6 | 2.1 | 32–0 | 6 DOF | 13 | V | DM, TV | HH—gamified boredom intervention |
| 73 | [65] | 2001 | 72 | 18–30, 18–26 | 21.3, 20.5 | NR | 24, 24; 12.12 | fixed-based | NR | C | RT | HH, HF—conversation |
| 74 | [147] | 2021 | 18 | 20–51 | 27.17 | 7.96 | 4.14 | fixed-based | 28 | V, C | DM, OM | HF—phone call: visuospatial questions, and conceptual questions |
| 75 | [58] | 2015 | 36 | NR | 28.44 | 9.26 | 30.6 | fixed-based | NR | C, V, M | DM | HH—conversation, texting |
| 76 | [67] | 2013 | 92 | <20, 24–30, >65/NR | 18, 26.4, NR/26.4, 18.3, 69.8 | 0.44, 1.92, NR/1.76, 0.74, 4.2 | NR | fixed-based | NR | V, C + A | TV, DM, OM | HF—phone conversation—responding to incoming calls, and initiating calls |
| 77 | [82] | 2009 | 30 | 23–50 | 32.4 | 6.75 | 26.4 | fixed-based | NR | C | TV, DM, RT | HH—phone conversation |
| 78 | [139] | 2016 | 23 | 18–40 | 23.26 | NR | 13.10 | fixed-based | 17.5 | C | DM, RT | HF—phone conversation |
| 79 | [96] | 2018 | 60 | NR | 19.74 | 2.4 | 30.3 | fixed-based | 8.04 | C, M | OM | HF—conversation, texting |
| 80 | [133] | 2020 | 42 | 30–40 | 34.33 | 2.99 | 21.21 | 1 DOF | NR | C | RT | HF, HH—conversation |
| 81 | [70] | 2020 | 34 | NR | 47.6, 23.05 | NR | 23, 11 | fixed-based | NR | V, M + A | OM | HF—normal conversation (non-emotional cellular conversation), and seven-level mathematical calculations |
| 82 | [88] | 2021 | 101 | 18–57 | 27.8 | 8.3 | 68, 33 | fixed-based | 6 | V, C, M | DM | HH—texting, talking on the phone, or eating |
| 83 | [130] | 2020 | 34 | NR | 32.5 | 5.38 | 17, 17 | fixed-based | NR | C | DM, OM | HF—phone conversation |
Note: NP—number of participants; M—mean; SD—standard deviation; G—gender; ST—simulator type; LSR—length of simulated route; MT—measure type; AL—attention lapses; AP—accident probability; DM—driving maintenance; HA—hazard anticipation; RT—response time; TV—traffic violations; OM—other measures; HH—hand-held; HF—hands free; HFV—horizontal field of view.