TABLE 4.
Estimated marginal means, standard errors, and between-subjects effect sizes for contrasts with the none-mild depression and none-mild suffering group (n = 4,652).
| Criterion | None-mild depression and none-mild suffering (n = 2,477) | Moderate-severe depression and none-mild suffering (n = 450) | Moderate-severe suffering and none-mild depression (n = 910) | Moderate-severe depression and moderate-severe suffering (n = 815) |
| Physical health | ||||
| General health | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 3.93 ± 0.03 | 3.51 ± 0.04*** | 3.29 ± 0.03*** | 2.85 ± 0.03*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.30 [−0.36, −0.24] | −0.60 [−0.66, −0.54] | −0.97 [−1.03, −0.91] |
| Physically unhealthy days | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 2.04 ± 0.23 | 3.28 ± 0.37*** | 8.60 ± 0.30*** | 9.74 ± 0.30*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | 0.10 [0.04, 0.16] | 0.72 [0.66, 0.78] | 0.81 [0.75, 0.87] |
| Disability days | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 0.74 ± 0.20 | 2.78 ± 0.33*** | 5.75 ± 0.26*** | 10.28 ± 0.26*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | 0.19 [0.14, 0.25] | 0.63 [0.57, 0.69] | 1.15 [1.09, 1.30] |
| Vitality days | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 15.18 ± 0.27 | 7.70 ± 0.44*** | 10.06 ± 0.35*** | 5.07 ± 0.35*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.52 [−0.58, −0.47] | −0.48 [−0.54, −0.42] | −0.90 [−0.96, −0.84] |
| Sleepless days | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 9.90 ± 0.27 | 15.07 ± 0.44*** | 12.40 ± 0.35*** | 16.87 ± 0.35*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | 0.36 [0.31, 0.42] | 0.23 [0.18, 0.29] | 0.62 [0.57, 0.68] |
| Emotional well-being | ||||
| Mentally unhealthy days | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 2.28 ± 0.21 | 7.03 ± 0.34*** | 5.32 ± 0.27*** | 14.26 ± 0.27*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | 0.43 [0.37, 0.49] | 0.37 [0.31, 0.42] | 1.38 [1.31, 1.44] |
| Happiness | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 7.77 ± 0.05 | 6.17 ± 0.08*** | 7.15 ± 0.07*** | 5.29 ± 0.07*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.58 [−0.64, −0.53] | −0.30 [−0.36, −0.25] | −1.15 [−1.21, −1.09] |
| Life satisfaction | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 7.95 ± 0.06 | 6.28 ± 0.09*** | 7.06 ± 0.07*** | 5.34 ± 0.07*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.56 [−0.62, −0.50] | −0.40 [−0.46, −0.34] | −1.11 [−1.18, −1.05] |
| Psychological well-being | ||||
| Meaning in life | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 8.35 ± 0.06 | 6.89 ± 0.10*** | 7.89 ± 0.08*** | 6.18 ± 0.08*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.46 [−0.52, −0.40] | −0.19 [−0.25, −0.14] | −0.87 [−0.93, −0.81] |
| Sense of purpose | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 7.85 ± 0.07 | 6.06 ± 0.12*** | 7.46 ± 0.10*** | 5.76 ± 0.10*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.46 [−0.52, −0.41] | −0.13 [−0.19, −0.08] | −0.69 [−0.75, −0.63] |
| Character strengths | ||||
| Promote good | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 8.28 ± 0.05 | 7.68 ± 0.09*** | 8.18 ± 0.07 | 7.63 ± 0.07*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.22 [−0.27, −0.16] | −0.05 [−0.11, 0.01] | −0.30 [−0.35, −0.24] |
| Delay gratification | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 7.61 ± 0.06 | 6.94 ± 0.10*** | 7.33 ± 0.08*** | 6.92 ± 0.08*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.20 [−0.26, −0.15] | −0.11 [−0.17, −0.06] | −0.27 [−0.32, −0.21] |
| Social well-being | ||||
| Satisfying relationships | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 6.99 ± 0.08 | 5.10 ± 0.13*** | 6.44 ± 0.10*** | 4.66 ± 0.10*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.45 [−0.51, −0.39] | −0.18 [−0.23, −0.12] | −0.71 [−0.77, −0.65] |
| Financial and material well-being | ||||
| Financial stability | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 6.23 ± 0.10 | 4.69 ± 0.16*** | 5.23 ± 0.13*** | 3.84 ± 0.13*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.30 [−0.35, −0.24] | −0.25 [−0.31, −0.20] | −0.59 [−0.64, −0.53] |
| Material stability | ||||
| EMM ± SE | 7.12 ± 0.10 | 5.61 ± 0.16*** | 6.10 ± 0.12*** | 4.66 ± 0.12*** |
| Cohen’s d [95% CI]a | − | −0.30 [−0.36, −0.24] | −0.27 [−0.33, −0.21] | −0.63 [−0.68, −0.57] |
CI, confidence interval; EMM, estimated marginal mean; SE, standard error. Models adjusted for age, gender, sexual orientation, racial/ethnic status, marital status, child dependents, and adult/elderly dependents.
aThe none-mild depression and none-mild suffering group served as the reference group in each model.
***Comparison group differs significantly from the none-mild depression and none-mild suffering group at p < 0.05 both before and after Bonferroni correction (the p-value cutoff for Bonferroni correction was 0.05/15 = 0.0033 for each criterion variable).