Table 1.
Antiviral potential of naturally occurring anthraquinones.
| Compound | Plant species | Model | Pharmacological parameters | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chrysophanol |
Rheum palmatum, Rheum officinale, Aloe vera, Dianella longifolia |
HIV-1 RT-associated RNase H HIV-1 RDDP HBV HBV virion DNA HBsAg HBeAg Poliovirus type-2 Poliovirus type-3 HBV polymerase |
IC50 = 25.0 µM IC50 = 26.5 µM I = 65.5% IC50 = 213.2 µg/mL IC50 = 286 µg/mL IC50 = 322 µg/mL EC50 = 0.21 µg/mL EC50 = 0.02 µg/mL ∆G = – 7.6 kcal/mol |
Li et al. (2007), Semple et al. (2001), Esposito et al. (2016), Parvez et al. (2019) |
| Sennoside A |
Rheum palmatum, Rheum officinale |
HIV-1 RT-associated RNase H HIV-1 RDDP |
IC50 = 1.9 µM IC50 = 5.3 µM |
Esposito et al. (2016) |
| Sennoside B |
Rheum palmatum, Rheum officinale |
HIV-1 RT-associated RNase H HIV-1 RDDP |
IC50 = 2.1 µM IC50 = 2.3 µM |
Esposito et al. (2016) |
| Rhein |
Rheum palmatum, Rheum officinale |
HIV-1 RT-associated RNase H HIV-1 RDDP HBV virion DNA HBsAg HBeAg Human coronaviruses |
IC50 = 60 µM IC50 > 100 µM IC50 = 30.97µg/mL IC50 = 57.10 µg/mL IC50 = 59.91 µg/mL Dose-dependently |
Li et al. (2007), Esposito et al. (2016), Zannella et al. (2021) |
| Aloe-emodin |
Rheum palmatum, Rheum officinale, Aloe vera. Rheum emodi |
HIV-1 RT-associated RNase H HIV-1 RDDP HBV HBV virion DNA HBsAg HBeAg HBV polymerase SARS coronavirus 3CL pro COVID-19 |
IC50 = 23.0 µM IC50 = 21.0 µM I = 81.7% IC50 = 4,626.2 µg/mL IC50 = 715.31 µg/mL IC50 = 5,863.36 µg/mL ∆G = – 8.2 kcal/mol IC50 = 366 µM ∆G = – 36.92 kcal/mol |
Lin et al. (2005), Li et al. (2007), Esposito et al. (2016), Parvez et al. (2019), Rolta et al. (2021) |
| Alizarine | Rheum emodi | COVID-19 | ∆G = – 33.59 kcal/mol |
Rolta et al. (2021) |
| Physcion |
Rheum palmatum, Rheum officinale |
HIV-1 RT-associated RNase H HIV-1 RDDP HBV virion DNA HBsAg HBeAg |
IC50 > 100 µM IC50 > 100 µM IC50 = 159.3 µg/mL IC50 = 253 µg/mL IC50 = 194 µg/mL |
Li et al. (2007), Esposito et al. (2016) |
| Emodin |
Rheum palmatum, Rheum officinale, Rheum tanguticum, Polygonum multiflorum, Rheum emodi Polygonum cuspidatum |
HIV-1 RT-associated RNase H HIV-1 RDDP Herpes simplex virus HBV virion DNA HBsAg HBeAg SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 CVB4 CVB5 |
IC50 > 100 µM IC50 > 100 µM Dose-dependent manner IC50 = 27.32 µg/mL IC50 = 46.17 µg/mL IC50 = 35.24 µg/mL IC50 = 200 µM ∆G = – 40.60 kcal/mol EC50 = 12.06 µM EC50 = 12.11 µMol/L |
Ho et al. (2007), Li et al. (2007), Xiong et al. (2011), Liu et al. (2013), Esposito et al. (2016), Rolta et al. (2021) |
| Aloin B | Aloe vera | HBV HBVpolymerase |
I = 62% ∆G = – 7.4 kcal/mol |
Parvez et al. (2019) |
| Dantron | Rheum emodi | COVID-19 | ∆G = – 45.48 kcal/mol | Rolta et al. (2021) |
| Chrysophanol 8-O-β-D-glucoside | Rheum palmatum | HBV virion DNA HBsAg HBeAg |
IC50 = 36.98 µg/mL IC50 = 237.4 µg/mL IC50 = 183.41 µg/mL |
Li et al. (2007) |
| Anthrarufin | Rheum emodi | COVID-19 | ∆G = – 34.95 kcal/mol | Rolta et al. (2021) |
| 1,3-dihydroxy-5-methoxy-6-methoxymethyl-2- methyl-9,10-anthraquinone. | Morinda citrifolia | H1N1 | IC50 = 66.1 µM | Wang et al. (2016) |
| 1,3-dihydroxy-5-methoxy-2,6-bismethoxy- methyl-9,10-anthraquinone. | Morinda citrifolia | H1N1 | IC50 = 10.5 µM | Wang et al. (2016) |
HBV: Hepatitis B virus, HBsAg: Hepatitis B surface antigen; HBeAg: Hepatitis B envelop antigen; I: percentage of inhibition, IC50 or EC50: Concentration of the compound producing 50% inhibition; ∆G: binding energy in docking study; 3CL pro: 3C-like protease