Table 2.

Medications (lactulose and acarbose) and effects on the microbiome at the genus and species levels in healthy subjects or diabetic patients.

Lactulose	Acarbose
At the genus level:↑ Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium↓ Bacteroidaceae, Eubacteria, and ClostridiaAt the species level:↑ Bifidobacterium longum/breve and Akkermansia↓ Clostridium perfringens, Desulfovibrionaceae, and Bacteroidaceae	At the genus level:↑ Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium↓ Ruminococcus, Butyricicoccus, and Phascolarctobacterium At the species level:↑ Bifidobacterium longum↓ Bacteroides plebeius, Clostridium bolteae, and Bacteroides dorei/vulgatus

↑, increase; ↓, decrease.