. 2022 Sep 29;130(9):096002. doi: 10.1289/EHP9934

Table 2.

Characteristics of Latin American and the Caribbean studies on pesticide exposure and genotoxicity published between 2007 and 2021 ( $lowercase italic n equals 62$ ).

Study	Year of publication/country	Population and sample size	Study design	Pesticides assessed	Exposure assessment method	Pesticide or metabolite concentrations	Health effect and assessment method/instrument	Results
Studies on OCs
Studies in children
1. Alvarado-Hernández et al.⁴⁶	2013/Mexico	50 mother–child (newborns) pairs living in a rural agricultural area	Cross-sectional	OCs	Maternal (collected at delivery) and cord blood HCH, HCB, aldrin, heptachlor epoxide, oxychlordane, chlordane, DDT, DDE, nonachlor, mirex, and endosulfan	Median (P25–P75) ( $ng / g$ lipid): Maternal: $lowercase alpha uppercase h c h equals 367$ (243–617); $lowercase beta uppercase h c h equals 1,320$ (1,009–2,094); $lowercase gamma uppercase h c h equals 391 open parenthesis 252 to 638 close parenthesis$ $uppercase h c b equals 58$ (46–76); $aldrin equals 412$ (208–528); heptachlor $epoxide equals 3,762$ (2,941–5,167); oxychlordane 1,672 (977–2,232); $lowercase t chlordane equals 1 open parenthesis 0.4 to 9 close parenthesis$ ; $lowercase c chlordane equals 8 open parenthesis 1 to 16 close parenthesis$ ; $cis-nonachlor equals 2 open parenthesis 0.8 to 17 close parenthesis$ ; $mirex equals 18 open parenthesis 8 to 24 close parenthesis$ , $endosulfan 1 equals 153 open parenthesis 97 to 221 close parenthesis$ ; endosulfan $2 equals 90$ (62–118); $uppercase d d e equals 472$ (153–1,041); $uppercase d d t equals 204$ (11–341) Cord blood: $lowercase alpha uppercase h c h equals 1,251 open parenthesis 755 to 2,532 close parenthesis$ ; $lowercase beta uppercase h c h equals 2,815 open parenthesis 2,017 to 4,337 close parenthesis$ ; $lowercase gamma uppercase h c h equals 995 open parenthesis 695 to 1,193 close parenthesis$ ; $uppercase h c b equals 137 open parenthesis 107 to 175 close parenthesis$ ; $aldrin equals 906 open parenthesis 608 to 1,197 close parenthesis$ ; $heptachlor epoxide equals 8,707 open parenthesis 5,809 to 10,651 close parenthesis$ ; $oxychlordane equals 1411 open parenthesis 466 to 2,237 close parenthesis$ ; $lowercase t chlordane equals 3 open parenthesis 0.5 to 23 close parenthesis$ ; $lowercase c chlordane equals 21 open parenthesis 0.2 to 35 close parenthesis$ ; $cis-nonachlor equals 31 open parenthesis 2 to 49 close parenthesis$ ; $mirex equals 27 open parenthesis 5.9 to 50 close parenthesis$ ; $endosulfan 1 equals 401 open parenthesis 53 to 557 close parenthesis$ ; $endosulfan 2 equals 265 open parenthesis 163 to 368 close parenthesis$ ; $uppercase d d e equals 192 open parenthesis 22 to 536 close parenthesis$ ; $uppercase d d t equals 421 open parenthesis 0.1 to 707 close parenthesis$	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: MN, CHBs, NPBs	Null associations of OC pesticides with markers of cytogenetic or DNA damage.
2. Jasso-Pineda et al.⁴⁷	2015/Mexico	276 children (6–12 years of age) living in communities with industrial activities (e.g., agriculture)	Cross-sectional	OCs	Questionnaire (drinking water, occupational and parental exposure history) Serum DDT	$Mean \pm SD$ ( $ng / g$ lipid): Range of total blood DDT concentrations in 11 communities: from 12.5 $\pm 5$ to 21,500 $\pm 6,800$	DNA damage: comet assay	Children with high total DDT concentrations (defined as higher than the national geometric mean) had a higher DNA damage compared with those with low total DDT concentrations ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ). Children exposed to PAHs (from biomass combustion) and DDT had the highest DNA damage compared with children in the other three exposure scenarios (high PAHs, high arsenic, and low lead exposure) ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ).
3. Anguiano-Vega et al.⁴⁸	2020/Mexico	63 children (6–13 years of age) exposed to pesticides near school/24 controls (6–13 years of age)	Cross-sectional	OCs	Questionnaire (parental occupational exposure history) Hair HCH, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, heptachlor, epoxyheptane, endosulfan, DDD, DDE, DDT	Total (mean) OCs ( $μ g / g$ ): Exposed: 28.2 (0.95) unexposed: 4.4 (0.18)	Cytogenetic damage: MN, CC Cytotoxicity: KR, PK, BN, KL, LN, AN, TAC	Higher frequency of PK, BN, KL, LN, and AT abnormalities among exposed children compared with unexposed ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05)$ for each). Among all participants, those in the highest tertile of total OC concentrations had higher numbers of TAC compared with those in the lowest tertile ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05)$ ).
Studies on OPs or CBs
Studies in adults
4. Franco et al.⁵⁶	2016/Brazil	161 community health agents/88 controls	Cross-sectional	OPs	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Transcriptome: LRP1, IGF2R, IGL family, IGJ, CXCL5, CCL3, NSH, LGALS14, NBPF	Exposed individuals had higher DNA damage than controls ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.03)$ ). Higher DNA damage in GSTM1-positive individuals than GSTM1-null individuals ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.05)$ ). Sixteen genes with differential gene expression between exposed and controls. Compared with the controls, LRP1 and IGF2R genes were underexpressed and gene IGL family and IGJ were overexpressed in the exposed group.
5. Martinez et al.⁶⁷	2016/Argentina	27 urban patients with SLE/17 rural patients with SLE/30 urban healthy controls/28 rural healthy controls	Cross-sectional	OPs and CBs	Questionnaire (residential exposure history) Blood AChE, BChE^a	Not applicable	Oxidative stress: CAT, SOD, GSH/GSSG ratio, TBARS	Increase in TBARS (18.3%, $lowercase italic p equals 0.01)$ ) in rural SLE cases compared with urban SLE cases.
6. Silvério et al.⁵⁷	2017/Brazil^b	94 farmworkers exposed to pesticides including OPs/94 farmworkers exposed to pesticides not including OPs/50 controls	Cross-sectional	OPs	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Urinary DAPs^a Blood AChE, BChE^a	$Mean \pm SD$ ( $μ g / L$ ): Occupationally exposed to complex mixtures with OPs: $DETP = 0.27 \pm 0.25$ ; $DEDTP = 0.06 \pm 0.04$ Occupationally exposed to complex mixtures without OPs: $DETP = 0.09 \pm 0.005$ ; $DEDTP = 0.08 \pm 0.02$ Control group: $DETP < LOQ$ ; $DEDTP < LOQ$	Cytogenetic damage: MN, BN, NBUDs Cytotoxicity: CC, KR, PN, KL	Farmworkers exposed to pesticides including OPs had higher NBUDs, CC, and KL than those exposed to pesticides but not OPs ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ). Both exposed groups had higher MN, BN, CC, KR, PN, and KL than controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ).
7. Simoniello et al.⁶⁶	2017/Argentina	50 urban patients with SLE/39 rural patients with SLE/54 urban healthy controls/53 rural healthy controls	Cross-sectional	OPs	Questionnaire (residential exposure history) Blood AChE, BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Endo sites Oxidative stress: CAT, SOD, TBARS, GSH, GSSG	Endo sites and SOD ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ , $lowercase italic p less than 0.03$ , $lowercase italic p equals 0.01$ , respectively) were higher in rural patients with SLE than urban ones. Rural patients with SLE had increased risk of having oxidative DNA damage than urban patients with SLE ( $odds ratio equals 3.5$ ; 95% CI: 1.4, 8.8).
8. Zepeda-Arce et al.⁵⁸	2017/Mexico	60 sprayers with motor pump (high-exposure group)/126 solid pesticides sprayers (moderate-exposure group)/22 controls	Cross-sectional	OPs, pyrethroids, CBs	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood AChE, BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Oxidative stress: MDA, SOD, CAT, GPx, GR	No differences in CAT, SOD, GPx, GR activities, DNA damage, and MDA levels between groups.
9. Benitez-Trinidad et al.⁵⁹	2018/Mexico	127 urban pesticide sprayers/63 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA methylation: LINE-1	Decreased percentage of methylated cytosines in both moderate- and high-exposure groups compared with controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ). Those occupationally exposed had decreased %5mC LINE-1 methylation ( $odds ratio equals 0.4$ ; 95% CI: 0.2, 0.8).
10. Xotlanihua-Gervacio et al.⁶⁰	2018/Mexico	58 spraying brigade workers (high-exposure group)/120 non-sprayer workers (moderate-exposure group)/23 controls	Cross-sectional	OPs, pyrethroids	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Urinary DAPs^a	Mean (range) of total DAPs ( $ng / mL$ ): $reference group equals 33.5 open parenthesis 24.6 to 41.3 close parenthesis$ ; $moderate exposure group equals 58.5 open parenthesis 24.5 to 353.3 close parenthesis$ ; $high exposure group equals 122.5 open parenthesis 25.6 to 488.4 close parenthesis$	Cytogenetic damage: MN, NBUDs, NPBs Oxidative stress: GPx, GR, SOD, CAT	No differences in MN frequency between exposed workers and controls. A marginal decrease in SOD and CAT activities was observed in the high-exposure group compared with the reference group.
11. Herrera-Moreno et al.⁶¹	2019/Mexico	60 spraying brigade workers (high-exposure group)/126 pesticide distributors or occasional farmworkers (moderate-exposure group)/102 controls	Cross-sectional	OPs	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Urinary DAPs^a	Mean (range) of total DAPs ( $ng / mL$ ): $reference group equals 33.5 open parenthesis 24.6 to 41.3 close parenthesis$ ; $moderate exposure group equals 58.5 open parenthesis 24.5 to 353.3 close parenthesis$ ; $high exposure group equals 122.5 open parenthesis 25.6 to 488.4 close parenthesis$	DNA methylation: CDKN2B, CDKN2A	Lower DNA methylation of CDKN2B gene in both pesticide-exposed groups compared with controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ); higher methylation of the CDKN2A promoter in the moderate-exposure group compared with controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ). Association between pesticide exposure and methylation pattern in CDKN2B ( $lowercase beta equals 0.03$ ; $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ and $lowercase beta equals 0.04$ ; $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for moderate and high-exposure groups, respectively) and DKN2A ( $lowercase beta equals 1.5$ ; $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for moderate-exposure group).
12. Paredes-Céspedes et al.⁶⁸	2019/Mexico	164 urban mestizo sprayers/189 indigenous persons without occupational pesticide exposure/91 mestizo individuals without occupational pesticide exposure (reference group)	Cross-sectional	OPs	Questionnaire (past and present pesticide exposure) Urinary DAPs	Mean (range) of total DAPs ( $ng / μ L$ ): $reference group equals 34.10 open parenthesis 24.58 to 41.32 close parenthesis$ ; $mestizo sprayers equals 107.64 open parenthesis 24.45 to 488.40 close parenthesis$ ; $indigenous group equals 44.60 open parenthesis 15.68 to 147.70 close parenthesis$	DNA methylation: %5mC of $uppercase w r a p 53 lowercase alpha gene$	Increased %5mC in CpG sites 1 and 2 in mestizo sprayers compared with reference and indigenous groups ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ). Lower %5mC among indigenous group for CpG site 3 compared with reference and mestizo sprayer groups ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ). No correlations between total urinary DAP concentrations and %5mC in any group. Among the two mestizo groups, self-reported of deltamethrin was associated with decreased odds of having %5mC levels above the GM ( $odds ratio equals 0.2$ ; 95% CI: 0.5, 0.9), and self-reported use of temephos was associated with increased odds of having %5mC levels above the GM ( $odds ratio equals 2.8$ ; 95% Ci: 1.3, 5.7).
13. Butinof et al.⁶²	2019/Argentina^b	47 pesticide applicators/52 unexposed controls	Cross-sectional	OPs, CBs	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: CAs, MN	Higher CA and MN frequencies and DNA damage in pesticide applicators compared with unexposed ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each).
14. Bernieri et al.⁶³	2020/Brazil	12 male soybean growers/12 unexposed control males	Cross-sectional	OPs	Questionnaire (occupational history) Blood BChE (measured in samples collected during periods of high and low exposure in the same year)^a	Not applicable	DNA damage (measured in samples collected during periods of high and low exposure in the same year): comet assay	DNA damage index higher in soybean growers during high exposure period compared with the low exposure period and with controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each). No correlation between exposure time and DNA damage.
15. Aiassa et al.⁶⁵	2019/Argentina	30 pesticide applicators/22 unexposed controls	Cross-sectional	OPs, carbamates	Questionnaire (occupational and environmental exposure history) Blood BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: CA, MN	Higher mean CA, MN, and DNA fragmentation values ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ) in pesticide applicators than in unexposed controls.
16. Valencia-Quintana et al.⁶⁴	2021/Mexico	54 farmworkers/26 unexposed controls	Cross-sectional	OPs, carbamates	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood AChE, BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: MN Cytotoxicity: KR, KL, CC, PN	Farmworkers had higher frequency of MN, KR, KL, CC, PN, and all other measured parameters than controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each).
Studies on other pesticides or multiple pesticide classes
Studies in children
17. Gómez-Arroyo et al.⁴⁹	2013/Mexico	125 children (1–13 years of age) living around areas of intensive agriculture/125 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (residential exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN, BN, NBUDs Cytotoxicity: KL, KR	Exposed children had higher frequency of MN ( $odds ratio equals 3.1$ ; 95% CI: 2.7, 3.5), BN ( $odds ratio equals 4.3$ ; 95% CI: 3.9, 4.6), KL ( $odds ratio equals 2.6$ ; 95% CI: 2.6, 2.7), KR ( $odds ratio equals 17.8$ ; 95% CI: 14.8, 20.8), and NBUDs ( $odds ratio equals 1.5$ ; 95% CI: 1.5, 1.8) than controls.
18. Bernardi et al.⁵⁰	2015/Argentina	50 children (4–14 years of age) living near pesticide application areas/ 25 controls	Cross-sectional	OPs, pyrethroids, glyphosate	Questionnaire (residential exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN	Children living $less than or equal to 500 meters$ from pulverized areas had higher frequency of MN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ) than children living $greater than 500 meters$ and controls ( $greater than 3000 meters$ ).
19. Barrón Cuenca et al.⁵⁵	2015/Bolivia	41 children with chronic malnourishment/114 cases $less than or equal to 3$ years of age	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (maternal occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN	Null associations between pesticide exposure and markers of cytogenetic damage.
20. Castañeda-Yslas et al.⁵¹	2016/Mexico	34 children of farmworkers (4–11 years of age)/38 child controls (7–14 years of age)/37 female farmworkers/35 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational and parental exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN, BN, NBUDs, NA, LN Cytotoxicity: KR, KL, CC, PN	Frequencies of MN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ), LN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ), and CC ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ) were higher, and PN ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.004$ ) lower in children of farmworkers than in children of controls. Higher MN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ) and CC ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.04$ ), and lower PN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ) frequencies in female farmworkers than controls.
21. Nascimento et al.⁵²	2017/Brazil^b	40 children (6–12 years of age) living near a tobacco-producing region	Prospective cohort	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (parental and seasonal exposure history) Blood AChE, BChE^a	Not applicable	Oxidative damage: MDA, PCO, vitamin C	MDA, PCO, and vitamin C ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ) were higher at the beginning of application period than at leaf harvest period.
22. Ruiz-Guzmán et al.³⁰	2017/Colombia	50 children (5–15 years of age) from agricultural villages/13 controls from nearby city	Cross-sectional	OPs, pyrethroids, atrazine, bipyridyl	Questionnaire (parental and residential exposure history) Urinary ATZ and its metabolites ADI and ADDI	$Mean \pm SD$ ( $μ g / g$ creatinine): Pelayito: $ATZ = 18.6 \pm 4.3$ ; $ADI = 3.5 \pm 4.6$ ; $ADDI = 16.8 \pm 10.0$ ; Aguas Negras: $ADDI = 154.6 \pm 32.5$	Cytogenetic damage: MN, NBUDs, apoptotic cells	Null associations of urinary ATZ and its metabolites with MN, NBUDs, or apoptotic cells.
23. Quintana et al.⁵⁴	2017/Argentina^b^,^c^,^d	151 mother–newborn pairs living in a rural area/38 mother–newborn pairs from an urban area (controls)	Cross-sectional	OPs	Questionnaire (residential and seasonal exposure history) Cord blood AChE, BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Oxidative stress: SOD, CAT	DNA damage index was higher in RG-SS than controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ), but not significantly different between RG-SS and RG-NSS. SOD activity was lower in RG-SS compared with RG-NSS and controls ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.01$ ).
24. Leite et al.⁵³	2019/Paraguay	43 children (5–10 years of age) living in agricultural community surrounded by transgenic soybean crops/41 children living in agricultural community using biological control of pests	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire Blood AChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damages: MN, BN, BE Cytotoxicity: KR, KL, CC, PN	Higher MN, BN, BE, KR, KL, PN, and CC in exposed group compared with control group ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each). Higher mean values of tail length and tail movement among exposed vs. unexposed group ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each).
Studies in adults
25. Jørs et al.⁶⁹	2007/Bolivia	48 farmworkers/33 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: CAs	Higher DNA damage and frequencies of CAs in farmworkers than in controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ). Number of CAs increased with the intensity of pesticide exposure.
26. Kehdy et al.⁷⁰	2007/Brazil	29 sanitation workers/30 controls	Cross-sectional	OPs, pyrethroids, rodenticides	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damages: MN, NPBs, APOP, NECR, NDI	Higher frequencies of MN, NB, and NECR in sanitation workers than in controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ). No difference in APOP frequency between groups. NDI was lower in the sanitation workers than controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ).
27. da Silva et al.⁸⁶	2008/Brazil	108 vineyard farmworkers/65 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: MN, BNMN	Higher BNMN frequency, DI, and DF in farmworkers compared with controls ( $lowercase italic p less than or equal to 0.001$ . Higher MN frequency in PON1 Gln/Gln individuals in the exposed group, compared with PON1 Arg/– in the exposed group ( $lowercase italic p less than or equal to 0.05$ ).
28. Simoniello et al.⁹¹	2008/Argentina	27 pesticide applicator farmworkers/27 non-pesticide applicator farmworkers/30 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Occupation (pesticide applicator farmworker, non-pesticide applicator farmworker, non-farmworker)	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay, damage index repair assay	Pesticide applicators and non-applicator farmworkers had higher DNA damage than unexposed controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ).
29. Bortoli et al.⁹²	2009/Brazil	29 farmworkers/37 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN	Significantly higher mean MN frequency in farmworkers than in controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ).
30. Martínez-Valenzuela et al.⁹³	2009/Mexico	70 farmworkers/70 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: SCE, MN, NA, CPK	Significantly higher mean SCE and MN frequencies in farmworkers than in controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each).
31. Remor et al.⁹⁴	2009/Brazil^b	37 farmworkers/20 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: MN	Higher DI ( $lowercase italic p less than or equal to 0.001$ ) and DF ( $lowercase italic p less than or equal to 0.005$ ) in farmworkers than in controls. MN frequencies were not different between groups.
32. Simoniello et al.⁹⁵	2010/Argentina	45 farmworkers applicator/50 farmworkers non-applicator/50 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood AChE, BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Oxidative damage: CAT activity, TBARS	Increased TBARS levels among farmworkers directly exposed ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ) but not among those indirectly exposed. CAT reduction in both exposed groups respect to controls ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.005$ and $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ , respectively). IDEC and IDER increased in both exposed groups ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ).
33. Paz-y-Miño et al.¹⁰⁵	2011/Ecuador	92 exposed from communities with aerial spraying/90 controls	Cross-sectional	GLY	Questionnaire (residence exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: CAs, karyotype	Levels of cytogenetic damage and DNA alterations were similar between groups.
34. Payán-Rentería et al.⁹⁶	2012/Mexico^b	25 farmworkers and applicators/21 controls	Cross-sectional	OCs, OPs, herbicides	Medical examination Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood AChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage	Higher circulating DNA fragments ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ) in farmworkers than in controls.
35. Benedetti et al.⁹⁷	2013/Brazil	81 farmworkers/46 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: MN, BN, NBUDs Cytotoxicity: CC, KR, KL	Farmworkers had higher DNA damage ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ), frequency of MN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ), NBUDs ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.010$ ), BN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ), and cell death (CC, $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ; KR, $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ , and KL, $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ) compared with controls.
36. Khayat et al.⁷¹	2013/Brazil	41 farmworkers/32 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: MN	Higher MN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.0001$ ) and BN frequencies ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.0001$ ), %DNA in the tail ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ), TM ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ), OTM ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ) in farmworkers than controls, but not in TL ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ).
37. Varona-Uribe et al.¹⁰⁶	2014/Colombia	223 farmworkers	Cross-sectional	OCs, OPs, CBs, fungicides	Blood OPs: bromophos-ethyl, bromophos-methyl, chlorpyriphos, dimethoate, malathion, methamidophos, methyl parathion, pirimiphos, pirimiphos-methyl, profenofos Blood CBs: aminocarb, bendiocarb, metolcarb, pirimicarb, propoxur Blood OCs: BHC, HCB, heptachlor, heptachloro epoxide, chlordane, endosulfan, DDT DDE, carbofuran, mirex Urinary	Median (P25–P75) ( $ng / mL$ ): $bromophos-ethyl equals 1 open parenthesis 1 to 62 close parenthesis$ , $bromophos-methyl equals 1 open parenthesis 1 to 97 close parenthesis$ , $chlorpyriphos < LOD$ , $dimethoate equals 0 open parenthesis 0 to 14.3 close parenthesis$ , $malathion equals 1 open parenthesis 1 to 39 close parenthesis$ , $methamidophos equals 1 open parenthesis 1 to 60 close parenthesis$ , $methylparathion equals 1 open parenthesis 1 to 16 close parenthesis$ , $pirimiphos \leq LOD$ , $pirimiphos-methyl equals 1 open parenthesis 1 to 64 close parenthesis$ , $profenfos equals 1 open parenthesis 1 to 9 close parenthesis$ , $aminocarb equals 0$ , $bendiocarb < LOD$ , $metolcarb < LOD$ , $pirimicarb equals 0 open parenthesis 0 to 0.82 close parenthesis$ , $propoxur less than or equal to uppercase l o d)$ , $uppercase e t u equals 0)$ , $lowercase alpha uppercase b c h equals 2.4 open parenthesis 2 to 6.7 close parenthesis)$ , $lowercase beta uppercase b c h equals 0 open parenthesis 0 to 18.9 close parenthesis)$ , $uppercase h c b equals 1.8 open parenthesis 1.5 to 15.6 close parenthesis)$ , $heptachlor equals 25.5 open parenthesis 8.1 to 43.7 close parenthesis)$ , $heptachloro epoxide equals 0 open parenthesis 0 to 10.4 close parenthesis)$ , $lowercase alpha chlordane equals 8.6 open parenthesis 0 to 15.3 close parenthesis)$ , $lowercase gamma chlordane equals 0 open parenthesis 0 to 5.1 close parenthesis)$ , $oxychlordane equals 16.1 open parenthesis 13.6 to 22.4 close parenthesis)$ , $lowercase alpha endosulfan equals 0 open parenthesis 0 to 5.3 close parenthesis)$ , $lowercase beta endosulfan equals 50 open parenthesis 5 to 66 close parenthesis)$ , $endosufan sulfate equals 11.7 open parenthesis 3.2 to 27.5 close parenthesis)$ , $2,4 uppercase d d t equals 17.1 open parenthesis 14.5 to 27.5 close parenthesis)$ , $4,4 uppercase d d e equals 24.6 open parenthesis 2.2 to 31 close parenthesis)$ , $carbofuran less than uppercase l o d)$ , $mirex equals 0 open parenthesis 0 to 107 close parenthesis)$	DNA damage: comet assay	Higher concentrations of $α -BHC$ , $β -BHC$ , and HCB (as a mixture) ( $lowercase beta equals 1.21$ ; 95% CI: 0.33, 2.10) and of pirimiphos-methyl, malathion, bromophos-methyl, and bromophos-ethyl (as a mixture) ( $lowercase beta equals 11.97$ ; 95% CI: 2.34, 21.60) were associated with higher DNA damage and comet tail length, respectively.
38. Adad et al.⁹⁸	2015/Brazil^b	80 men farmworkers from state association/20 men farmworker from a private company/100 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood BChE^a	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN, BN Cytotoxicity: KR, KL	Higher frequencies of MN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ), KR (state group $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ; private group $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ), KL (both exposed groups $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ), and BN cells (both exposed groups $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ) in both exposed groups than in controls.
39. Wilhelm et al.⁷²	2015/Brazil	37 floriculturists/37 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: MN, NBUDs, BN Cytotoxicity: KR	MN, NBUDs, BN, and KR frequencies were similar between exposed and controls. Higher DNA damage in the exposed compared with controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ for DI and DF).
40. Alves et al.⁷³	2016/Brazil^b	77 tobacco farmworkers/60 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: MN Oxidative stress: SOD	MN frequency, DF, and DI were higher in farmworkers than controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ). Higher SOD activity in exposed relative to unexposed group ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.001$ ). Higher MN frequency in PON1 Gln/Gln individuals in the exposed group, compared with PON1 Arg/– individuals in the exposed group ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ).
41. Kahl et al.⁷⁴	2015/Brazil	62 tobacco farmworkers/62 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	aTL Oxidative stress: TBARS, TEAC	Farmworkers had higher TEAC ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ) and TBARS ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ), but lower aTL ( $lowercase beta equals 14.4$ , $standard deviation equals 3.2$ ) than controls.
42. Bianco et al.⁹⁹	2017/Argentina	76 farmworkers/53 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood AChE^a	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: CAs	Farmworkers had higher CAs frequency ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ) than controls.
43. Chaves et al.⁷⁵	2017/Brazil	97 farmworkers/55 controls	Cross-sectional	CBs, OPs, pyrethroids	Questionnaire (occupational and lifestyle exposures history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: Cas, MN	Increased frequency of CAs ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ) and MN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ) in farmworkers than in controls.
44. Hilgert Jacobsen-Pereira et al.¹⁰⁰	2018/Brazil	50 farmworkers/46 controls from the same agricultural area/29 controls from urban area	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood AChE, BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay. Cytogenetic damage: MN, NBUDs, NPBs Oxidative stress: TBARS, CAT activity	Higher DI ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ), MN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.005$ ), NBUD ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.005$ ), and NPB ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ) frequencies in farmworkers than controls. TBARS level was higher in exposed and in rural controls than urban controls. CAT activity was similar among groups.
45. Tomiazzi et al.⁷⁶	2017/Brazil	30 nonfarmer smokers/30 nonsmoker farmworkers/30 smokers and farmworkers/30 controls	Cross-sectional	OPs, pyrethroids, glyphosate	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN, BNMN Cytotoxicity: KL, KR, CC	MN frequency and the total cytogenetic abnormalities were higher in all exposed groups than in controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ).
46. Vazquez-Boucard et al.⁷⁷	2017/Mexico	107 consumers of well or tap water/40 consumers of bottled water (controls)	Case–control	OCs, OPs, neonics	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Regional water sampling	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay	Higher DNA damage in those who consumed well or tap water than in control group ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ). Individuals who consumed well or tap water and worked in agriculture had higher DNA damage than controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ).
47. Marcelino et al.⁹⁰	2017/Brazil	18 farmworkers/18 unexposed controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: MN	Significantly higher DNA and cytogenetic damage in exposed group compared with unexposed group ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each).
48. Hutter et al.⁷⁸	2018/Dominican Republic	38 exposed farmworkers/33 control farmworkers	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN, BUD, BN Cytotoxicity: CC, KR, KL, PN	All cytogenetic damage and cytotoxicity biomarkers were more frequent among farmworkers: MN ( $odds ratio equals 4.0$ ; 95% CI: 1.3, 7.4), total MN ( $odds ratio equals 2.5$ ; 95% CI: 1.2, 5.2), BUD ( $odds ratio equals 1.9$ ; 95% CI: 1.5, 2.5), BN ( $odds ratio equals 1.4$ ; 95% CI: 1.2, 1.7), CC ( $odds ratio equals 1.3$ ; 95% CI: 1.1, 1.6), KR ( $odds ratio equals 1.2$ ; 95% CI: 1.0, 1.4), KL ( $odds ratio equals 1.3$ ; 95% CI: 1.1, 1.5), PN ( $odds ratio equals 4.5$ ; 95% CI: 2.5, 8.2).
49. Kahl et al.⁸⁰	2018/Brazil	56 tobacco farmworkers/74 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Telomere length Oxidative stress: TEAC, TBARS DNA methylation: global and p16 methylation	Farmworkers had higher DNA damage ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ), lower percentage global DNA methylation, shorter telomeres ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ), and p16 hypermethylation ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.003$ ) compared with controls.
50. Cattelan et al.⁸⁸	2018/Brazil^b	84 farmworkers who used pesticides/68 farmworkers who did not use pesticides	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN Oxidative stress: CAT, GPx, GSH, SOD, TBARS, carbonylated protein levels	Lower mean TBARS ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.02$ ), GPx ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ), GSH ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ), and SOD ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ) values in farmworkers who did not use pesticides than in those who did use pesticides. No differences in MN frequency between groups.
51. Kahl et al.⁸⁹	2018/Brazil	40 tobacco farmworkers/40 unexposed controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN, NPB, NBUDs Telomere length DNA methylation: global MTHFR and TERT genotypes	Higher frequencies of MN, NPB, NBUD, and binucleated cells in farmworkers than controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ for each). Shorter telomere length ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.02$ ) and lower DNA global methylation levels ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ) in exposed group. Allele and genotype frequencies of MTHFR gene were different between exposed and unexposed groups ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ). No differences between groups for TERT polymorphism frequencies.
52. Claudio et al.⁷⁹	2019/Brazil	21 male banana farmworkers/20 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN Cytotoxicity: PN, KR, KL	Higher MN and KR frequencies in farmworkers than controls ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.05$ for both), but KL and PN were similar between groups.
53. de Oliveira et al.¹⁰¹	2019/Brazil	76 soybean farmworkers/72 controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history). Blood BChE^a	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN, BN, NBUDs Cytotoxicity: PN, KR, KL, CC Telomere length XCCR1 Trip/– and PON1 Arg/– genes	Increased cytogenetic damage (MN and NBUDs $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ; BN $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ) and cell death (CC and KR $lowercase italic p less than 0.001$ ) in the exposed group compared with controls. Telomere length was similar in both groups. Higher frequencies of BN cells in farmworkers ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.03$ ), and NBUDs in controls ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.04$ ) belonging to those carrying XCCR1 Trip/– and PON1 Arg/– genes.
54. Arévalo-Jaramillo et al.⁸¹	2019/Ecuador^b	62 women living in 2 agricultural communities/53 unexposed women from control community	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN, NBUDs, notched cells, BN Cytotoxicity: PK, KL, KR, CC	Lower BN ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ) and higher KL ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.05$ ) and KR ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.05$ ) among those in the first agricultural community compared with controls. Higher NBUDs ( $lowercase italic p equals 0.05$ ) and notched cells ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ) among those in the second agricultural community compared with the controls. Mean MN not statistically different between controls and exposed groups. Increased frequency of KL, KR, and CC cells among individuals with genetic polymorphisms in PON1 and GSTP1 genes.
55. Barrón Cuenca et al.⁸²	2019/Bolivia	297 men and women (17–70 years of age) from three agricultural communities	Cross-sectional	Fungicides, OPs, pyrethroids, herbicides	Questionnaire (occupational history) Urinary metabolites of tebuconazole, chlorpyrifos, permethrin, cypermethrin, cyfluthrin, phenoxy herbicides, bifenthrin, thiabendazole, pyrimethanil	Mean (IQR) of pesticide metabolites ( $ng / mL$ ) in total population: $uppercase t e b-o h equals 3.18 open parenthesis 0.2 to 1.4 close parenthesis$ ; $uppercase t c p lowercase y equals 17.6 open parenthesis 3.1 to 12.2 close parenthesis$ ; $3 uppercase b p a equals 3.2 open parenthesis 1.0 to 3.4 close parenthesis$ ; $uppercase d c c a equals 5.0 open parenthesis 1.1 to 4.8 close parenthesis$ ; $2, 4 uppercase d equals 15.8 open parenthesis 0.2 to 0.8 close parenthesis$ ; $uppercase m c p a equals 0.05 open parenthesis less than uppercase l o d close parenthesis$ ; $uppercase c f c a equals 0.4 open parenthesis less than uppercase l o d to 0.3 close parenthesis$ ; $4 uppercase f 3 uppercase b p a equals 0.1 open parenthesis less than uppercase l o d close parenthesis$ ; $5 uppercase o h- t b z equals 0.08 open parenthesis less than uppercase l o d close parenthesis$ ; $uppercase o h- p y r equals 2.5 open parenthesis less than uppercase l o d close parenthesis$	DNA damage Cytogenetic damage: MN	Increased MN frequency among those with $greater than or equal to 8$ y active farming compared with those with $less than 8$ y active farming. Days of active spraying per month was not associated with genotoxic damage. Increased odds of DNA strand breaks among those with high exposure to 2,4-D ( $odds ratio equals 2.0$ ); 95% CI: 1.1, 3.6 for tail movement and $odds ratio equals 1.8$ ; 95% CI: 1.0, 3.1 for %DNA in tail). Decreased odds of DNA strand breaks among those with high exposure to pyrethroids ( $odds ratio equals 0.5$ ; 95% CI: 0.3, 0.9 for %DNA in tail and $odds ratio equals 0.5$ ; 95% CI: 0.3, 1.0 for tail movement). High exposure to certain mixtures of pesticides (containing mainly 2,4-D or cyfluthrin) was associated with increased DNA strand breaks, but not increased chromosomal aberrations ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ). Higher levels of DNA strand breaks among participants with certain GSTM1 genotypes.
56. Cepeda et al.⁸³	2020/Colombia	5 farmers/5 unexposed controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (pesticide exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: CA, chromosomal instability	Increased total clonal and non-clonal CAs were observed in pesticide-exposed individuals compared with unexposed individuals ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ). Higher frequency of fragilities and chromatid/chromosomic breakage in exposed group compared with unexposed group ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each).
57. Hutter et al.⁸⁴	2021/Ecuador	34 male farmworkers engaged in conventional farming/37 male unexposed controls engaged in ecological farming	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: MN, BUD, BN Cytotoxicity: CC, KR, KL, PK, basal cells	Compared with controls working on ecological farms, those working on conventional farms had higher frequency of MN, BUD, BN, KR, CC, and KL ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each).
58. Salazar-Flores et al.⁸⁵	2020/Mexico	113 farmworkers/93 unexposed controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Oxidative stress: GSH, GSSG, GSH/GSSG ratio, carbonyl groups in proteins, nitrates–nitrites, lipoperoxides, membrane fluidity	Lower levels of GSH, GSSG, carbonyl groups in proteins, nitrates–nitrites, lipoperoxides, and membrane fluidity among farmworkers compared with unexposed controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each). No differences in most markers of oxidative stress between farmworkers and controls when farmworkers were grouped in four exposure categories.
59. Lovison Sasso et al.¹⁰²	2021/Brazil^b	50 male farmworkers/50 male controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood BChE^a	Not applicable	Oxidative stress: GSH, CAT, GR, GPx, SOD, TBARS, carbonylated protein levels	Lower SOD, CAT, GSH, GR, and GPx activity, but higher TBARS and carbonylated protein levels, among exposed group compared with controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ for each).
60. de Souza Espindola Santos et al.⁸⁷	2021/Brazil	52 farmworkers/68 non-farmworkers	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history)	Not applicable	Oxidative stress: CAT, SOD, thiols, GST, GPx, GR, 8-ISO	No differences in biomarkers of oxidative stress between farmworkers and non-farmworkers.
61. Fillippi et al.¹⁰³	2021/Argentina^b	47 pesticide applicators/53 unexposed controls	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Questionnaire (occupational exposure history) Blood HCB, HCH, endosulfan, DDE, DDT, AChE, BChE^a	Not applicable	DNA damage: comet assay Cytogenetic damage: SCE, CA, MN	Pesticide applicators had more DNA damage, as well as higher SCE, CA, MN frequencies, compared with controls ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ for each).
62. Mañas et al.¹⁰⁴	2021/Argentina	41 adults living in area of intensive agricultural production ( $less than 1,000 meters$ from sprayed fields)/24 unexposed adults ( $greater than 1,000 meters$ from sprayed fields)	Cross-sectional	Multiple pesticide classes	Residential proximity to agricultural fields	Not applicable	Cytogenetic damage: CAs, BNMN	Higher frequencies of CAs and BNMN in exposed group compared with unexposed group ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ for each). Among exposed group, higher CAs among those living $less than or equal to 500 meters$ from fields compared with those living $greater than 500 meters$ ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ).

Note: %5mC, percentage 5mC; %DNA, percentage DNA; 2,4-D, 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid; 8-ISO, 8-isoprostane; 3-BPA, 3-phenoxybenzoic acid; 4F3BPA, 4-fluoro-3-phenoxybenzoic acid; 5-OH-TBZ, 5-hydroxytiabendazole; AChE, acetylcholinesterase; ADI, atrazine desisopropyl; ADDI, atrazine desethyl-desisopropyl; APOP, apoptotic cells; AT, apoptosis; aTL, absolute telomere length; ATZ, atrazine; BChE, butyrylcholinesterase; BE, broken egg; BHC, benzene hexachloride; BN, binucleated cells; BNMN, binucleated cells with micronuclei; BUD, nuclear buds and broken eggs; CAs, chromosomal aberrations; CAT, catalase; CBs, carbamates; CC, condensed chromatin; CCL3, chemokine signaling pathway gene; CDKN2A, cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor 2A; CDKN2B, cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor 2B; CFCA, chloro-3,3,3-trifluoro-1-propen-1-yl]-2,2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylic acid; CHBs, chromatin buds; CI, confidence interval; CIN, chromosomal instability; CPK, cell proliferation kinetics; CXCL5, CXC subfamily of chemokine gene; DAP, dialkyl phosphate; DCCA, 3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid; DDD, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane; DDE, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene; DDT, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; DF, damage frequency; DI, damage index; DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid; ETU, ethylenethiourea; GLY, glyphosate; GM, geometric mean; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; GR, glutathione reductase; GSH, reduced glutathione; GSSG, oxidized glutathione; GST, glutathione $S$ -transferase; HCB, hexachlorobenzene; HCH, hexachlorocyclohexane; IDEC, comet assay damage index; IDER, repair test damage index; IGF2R, insulin like growth factor 2 receptor; IGJ, joining chain of multimeric IgA and IgM; IGL, immunoglobulin lambda locus; KL, karyolysis; KR, karyorrhexis; LGALS14, lectin galactoside-binding soluble 14; IQR, interquartile; LINE-1, long interspersed nucleotide element 1; LN, lobulated nucleus; LOD, limit of detection; LRP1, LDL receptor related protein 1; MCPA, 4- chloro-2-methylphenoxy acetic acid; MDA, malondialdehyde; MN, micronuclei; NA, nuclear abnormalities; NBPF, neuroblastoma breakpoint family genes; NBUDs, nuclear buds; NDI, nuclear division index; NECR, necrotic cells; NPBs, nucleoplasmic bridges; NSS, non-spraying season; OC, organochlorine; OH-PYR, 3-hydroxy-pyrimetanil; OP, organophosphate; OR, odds ratio; OTM, olive tail moment; P, percentile; PAHs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; PCO, protein carbonyls; PK, pyknosis; PN, pyknotic cells; PON1, paraoxonase 1 gene; RBCs, red blood cells; Ref, reference group; RG, rural group; S, Sulfur; SCE, sister chromatids exchanges; SD, standard deviation; SE, standard error; SLE, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus; SOD, superoxide dismutase; SS, spraying season; TAC, total abnormal cells; TBARS, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; TBE-OH, hydroxy-tebuconazole; TCPy, 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol; TEAC, total equivalent antioxidant capacity; TL, tail length; TM, tail moment.

^{^a}

Investigators did not use exposure biomarker concentrations in multivariate analyses.

^{^b}

Also included in Table 9 (other health effects).

^{^c}

Also included in Table 4 (placental outcomes and teratogenicity).

^{^d}

Also included in Table 8 (birth outcomes and child growth).