. 2022 Sep 29;130(9):096002. doi: 10.1289/EHP9934

Table 8.

Characteristics of Latin American and the Caribbean studies on pesticide exposure and birth size and child growth published between 2007 and 2021 ( $lowercase italic n equals 13$ ).

Study	Year of publication/country	Population and sample size	Study design	Pesticides assessed	Exposure assessment method	Pesticide or metabolite concentrations	Health effect and assessment method/instrument	Results
Studies on OCs
1. Cupul-Uicab et al.²¹⁵	2010/Mexico	788 mother–children (13–43 months of age, boys only) pairs from an area where DDT was recently used	Prospective cohort	OCs	Questionnaire (residential and seasonal exposure at prenatal period) Maternal serum DDT and DDE at delivery	Median (IQR) ( $μ g / g$ ) $lowercase italic p, lowercase italic p prime uppercase d d e equals 2.7 open parenthesis 4.3 close parenthesis$ $lowercase italic p, lowercase italic p prime uppercase d d t equals 0.3 open parenthesis 0.6 close parenthesis$	Weight, height	Null associations of prenatal DDT exposure with height and BMI in boys up to 43 months of age.
2. Garced et al.²¹⁶	2012/Mexico	253 mother–child (0–12 months of age) pairs	Prospective cohort	OCs	Maternal serum DDE in each trimester of pregnancy	$Geometric mean \pm GSD$ ( $ng / g$ ) $p, p'$ -DDE: $first trimester = 1,105.1 \pm 2.7$ ; $second trimester = 842.6 \pm 2.9$ ; $third trimester = 710.6 \pm 3.0$ $p, p'$ -DDT: $first trimester = 0.03 \pm 9.5$ ; $second trimester = 0.02 \pm 6.6$ ; $third trimester = 0.03 \pm 8.5$	Weight, length, head circumference during the first year of life	Null associations between prenatal DDE exposure and child growth during the first year of life.
3. Kadhel et al.²²⁰	2014/Guadeloupe	818 mother–newborn pairs	Prospective cohort	OCs	Cord blood chlordecone and DDE	Median (P25–P75) ( $μ g / L$ ) $chlordecone equals 0.39 open parenthesis 0.18 to 0.83 close parenthesis$ ; $lowercase italic p, lowercase italic p prime uppercase d d e open parenthesis for subgroup of 358 women close parenthesis equals 0.59 open parenthesis 0.22 to 1.26 close parenthesis$ .	Length of gestation, preterm birth	Higher cord blood chlordecone concentrations were associated with shorter length of gestation ( $β$ per 10-fold $increase = - 0.3$ wk; 95% CI: $negative 0.5$ , 0) and increased risk of preterm birth ( $hazard ratio equals 1.6$ ; 95% CI: 1.0, 2.3). Null associations of cord blood DDE with birth outcomes.
4. Costet et al.²²²	2015/Guadeloupe	222 mother–child (3–18 months of age) pairs	Prospective cohort	OCs	Questionnaire (dietary intake of food contaminated with chlordecone) Cord plasma and breast milk (3 months of age) chlordecone	Median (IQR) ( $μ g / L$ ): $cord plasma chlordecone equals 0.11 open parenthesis less than uppercase l o d to 0.33 close parenthesis$ ; $breast milk chlordecone equals 0.76 open parenthesis 0.40 to 1.70 close parenthesis$	Body length, weight, BMI at 3, 8, and 18 months of age	Highest tertile of cord blood chlordecone was associated with higher BMI in boys at 3 months of age ( $lowercase beta equals 0.9$ ; 95% CI: 0, 1.8) and in girls at 8 ( $lowercase beta equals 0.7$ ; 95% CI: 0, 1.5) and 18 ( $lowercase beta equals 0.7$ ; 95% CI: $negative 0.1$ , 1.4) months of age.
5. Arrebola et al.¹⁸⁸	2016/Bolivia^a	200 mother–newborn pairs from an agricultural area	Cross-sectional	OCs	Questionnaire (residential exposure history) Cord blood DDT and DDE	Median (P25–P75) ( $ng / g$ lipid) $lowercase italic p, lowercase italic p prime uppercase d d e equals 196.8 open parenthesis 52.8 to 475.0 close parenthesis$ $lowercase italic o, lowercase italic p prime uppercase d d t equals 39.5 open parenthesis 19.3 to 5.1 close parenthesis$	Birth weight, head circumference, birth length, ponderal index, length of gestation	Higher cord blood $o, p'$ -DDT was associated with lower birth weight ( $β = - 0.01$ ; 95% CI: $negative 0.03$ , $negative 0.001$ ), whereas higher $p, p'$ -DDE was associated with higher birth weight ( $lowercase beta equals 0.02$ ; 95% CI: 0.003, 0.02). Higher cord blood $p, p'$ -DDE was also associated with shorter gestation length ( $β = - 0.004$ [95% CI: $negative 0.01$ , $negative 0.001$ ). Higher $o, p'$ -DDT was associated with smaller head circumference ( $β = - 0.004$ ; 95% CI: $negative 0.01$ , 0).
6. Motta et al.²¹⁷	2016/Brazil	40 mother–newborn pairs living in a rural area	Cross-sectional	OCs	Questionnaire (residential, occupational, and domestic exposure history) Maternal blood (at delivery) and cord blood DDT, DDE, HCH, HCB, chlordane	Data not shown	Birth weight, head circumference, birth length	Null associations of maternal and newborn contamination indices (calculated using both metal and pesticide concentrations) with birth outcomes ( $lowercase italic p greater than 0.05$ ).
7. Hervé et al.²²¹	2016/Guadeloupe	593 mother–newborn pairs	Prospective Cohort	OCs	Cord blood chlordecone and DDE	Median (P25–P75) ( $μ g / L$ ) $chlordecone equals 0.20 open parenthesis 0.08 to 0.41 close parenthesis$ ; $lowercase italic p, lowercase italic p prime uppercase d d e equals 0.25 open parenthesis 0.09 to 0.63 close parenthesis$	Birth weight	Among mothers in the highest quartile of GWG, newborns with low and medium cord blood chlordecone concentrations had greater mean reduction in birth weight, compared with those with low cord blood chlordecone ( $β = - 184 g$ ; 95% CI: $negative 348$ , $negative 20$ , and $β = - 153 g$ ; 95% CI: $negative 326$ , 20, respectively).
Studies on OPs or CBs
8. Chiapella et al.¹⁷²	2014/Argentina^b	46 mother–newborn pairs from a rural area/24 mother–newborn pairs from an urban area (controls)	Cross-sectional	OPs	Questionnaire (residential and seasonal exposure history) Placental CE^c	Not applicable	Birth weight, birth length, head circumference, ponderal index, length of gestation	No differences in fetal growth measurements between exposure groups.
9. Rivero Osimani et al.¹⁶⁹	2016/Argentina^b	43 mother–newborn pairs from a rural area (RG)/20 mother–newborn pairs from an urban area (controls)	Cross-sectional	OPs	Questionnaire (residential and seasonal exposure history) Placental CE^c	Not applicable	Birth weight, birth length, head circumference, length of gestation	Mean birth weight was lower in RG-SS (difference of 9.6%; $lowercase italic p equals 0.02$ ) and RG-NSS (difference of 7.8%; $lowercase italic p equals 0.06$ ) compared with the control group. No differences in other birth outcomes between exposure groups.
10. Quintana et al.⁵⁴	2017/Argentina^a^,^b^,^e	151 mother–newborn pairs living in a rural area/38 mother–newborn pairs from an urban area (controls)	Cross-sectional	OPs	Questionnaire (residential and seasonal exposure history) Cord blood AChE, BChE	Not applicable	Birth weight, birth length, head circumference, length of gestation	Mean birth weight was lower in cesarean RG-SS than cesarean control group (difference of 14%; $lowercase italic p equals 0.04$ ). No differences in other birth outcomes between exposure groups. Null associations of cord blood AChE with birth outcomes.
11. Silvia et al.²¹⁰	2020/Argentina	53 mother–newborn pairs living in areas with intensive pesticide application	Cross-sectional	OPs, CBs	Questionnaire (residential exposure history) Blood AChE, BChE^c	Not applicable	Birth weight, birth length, head circumference, preterm birth, intrauterine growth retardation	No differences in birth weight, length, head circumference, head circumference/weight ratio, and ponderal index between children born during SS and those born during NSS.
Studies on other pesticides or multiple pesticide classes
12. Mora et al.²¹⁸	2015/Costa Rica	380 mother–newborn pairs living near banana plantations	Prospective cohort	Mn-containing fungicides	Maternal blood and hair Mn in each trimester of pregnancy	$Mean \pm SD$ : $Blood Mn (μ g / L) = 24.5 \pm 6.1$ ; $hair Mn (μ g / g) = 3.5 \pm 5.3$	Birth weight, birth length, head circumference, chest circumference, ponderal index, length of gestation	Hair Mn during the second and third trimesters of gestation were associated with chest circumference ( $β$ per 10-fold $increase equals 0.6 centimeter$ ; (95% CI: 0.2, 1.1), and $lowercase beta equals 0.6 centimeter$ ; 95% CI: $negative 0.2$ , 1.3, respectively). Null associations between blood Mn and birth outcomes.
13. Cecchi et al.²¹⁹	2021/Argentina	418 rural mother–newborn pairs living in proximity to intensive pesticide application/358 urban mother–child pairs	Prospective cohort	Multiple pesticides	Questionnaire (previous history of pesticide exposure and residential pesticide exposure)	Not applicable	Birth weight, birth length, head circumference	No differences in birth weight between groups. Birth length ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.01$ ) and head circumference ( $lowercase italic p less than 0.05$ ) $z$ -scores were lower in exposed group than in unexposed group.

Note: AChE, acetylcholinesterase; BChE, butyrylcholinesterase; BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence interval; DDE, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene; DDT, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; GWG, gestational weight gain; HCB, hexa-chlorobenzene; HCH, hexa-chlorocyclohexane; HR, hazard ratio; NSS, non-spraying season; Mn, manganese; OC, organochlorine; OP, organophosphate; OR, odds ratio; RG, rural group; SS, spraying season.

^{^a}

Also included in Table 6 (thyroid function).

^{^b}

Also included in Table 4 (placental outcomes and teratogenicity).

^{^c}

Investigators did not use exposure biomarker concentrations in multivariate analyses.

^{^d}

Also included in Table 2 (genotoxicity).

^{^e}

Also included in Table 9 (other health effects).